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There is no black race.                                            There is no white race.                                 
                                                                                  

BEFORE YOU ENTER Shades;                                                                                                                                                                LOOK AT THE BACK OF YOUR HAND                                                                                                                                                           WHAT COLOR IS IT                                                                                                                                                                                     SPEAK IT OUT LOUD...........                                                                                                                                                                                                                    ENTER

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  " Whatever Adam                                 called every living creature      that was the name thereof"
" Adam gave names to all". Gen.2:19
Allow me to introduce myself.

I am a member of the Human race (Homo Sapiens). The color of my skin is dark/light brown.  I was born in America.These are characteristics of my identity. There is no ambiguity.                                                         IAM A HOMO SAPIENT                             WITH BROWN SKIN                                         WHO WAS BORN IN AMERICA                     My name is Human.

" I'm for truth no matter who tells it. I'm for justice, no matter who it is for, or against.
I'm a Human Being,first,and foremost.And as such, I'm for whoever, and whatever benefits Humanity as a whole"
... (~ Malcolm X) .

The purpose of this site, is to provide a forum, for people to share in positive discourse.     Such that promotes a better understanding of our global connectivity.                                   And other topics of interest.

Welcome to SHaDES.  
a=a:  Law of identity: a, is equal to a, no more. no less.  A thing is equal to itself. no more. no less.
Aristotle

 Africa, is a place, not a race 

Africa was not the name of our place of origin:

Alkebu-Lan-  :                                                                                                                                              The  Mother of Mankind, The Garden Of Eden ;                                                                                                     Alkebulan is the oldest and the only word of indigenous origin.                                                                             It was used by the Moors, Nubians, Khart- Haddan's Carthaginians, and Ethiopians.                                                                                                                                                                           

The Kemetic or Alkebulan history of Afrika suggests that the name of the continent was Alkebulan

The word Africa came into existence in the late 17th Century                                                                            Kemetic History Of Afrika, Dr. Cheikh Anah Diop

The current misnomer adopted by almost everyone today was given to this continent by the ancient Greeks and Romans.                                                                                                                                        Dr. Cheik Anah Diop

Africa:
The worlds second - largest and second- most populous continent, after Asia. It covers 6% of Earth's total surface area and 20% of its land area.
Race: as  associated with Biology:                                                                                                                                                                   In biology, a race is a genetically distinct populations within the same species;                                                                                                                                                                  They typically have relatively minor morphological and genetic differences.                                                 THOUGH, All Humans, belong to the same  species ( Homo Sapiens) and the same sub species ( Homo Sapiens Sapiens), there are small genetic variations across the globe that engender diverse physical appearances,
such as, variations in skin color.                                                                             Wikipedia
If you go by skin color alone. Scientific evidence suggests that early homo sapiens likely had dark skin, as a means of protecting there bodies from the intense sunlight. In fact, it is believed that all Homo sapiens are descended from common ancestors who originated in Alkebulan/Africa.
 History of the concept of Race:
The dominate scholarly position is a modern phenomenon, at least in Europe and Americas.
However , there is less agreement regarding whether racisms, even absent a developed race concept, 
may have existed in the ancient Greek and Roman worlds.

Classicist, Frank Snowden ( 1970;1983). emphasized the lack of anti - black prejudice in the ancient world, led many scholars        of race to conclude that racism did not exist in the epoch.

However, later classiicists have responded that Snowden's work unnecessarily reduced all forms of racisim to it's

peculiarly American version based on skin color and other markers of non - white identity.


Moorish conquest of Andalusia 8th,century CE.; the Iberian peninsula became the site of the greatest intermingling between

Jewish, Christian and Muslim believers,

 during and after their reconquest of the Muslim principalities in the peninsula

The Catholic Monarchs Isabel and Ferdinand sought to establish a uniformly Christian state by expelling the first Jews (1492).

And then the Muslims (1502). But because large numbers of both converted to Christianity to avoid expulsion (and before this to avoid persecution), the monarchs distrusted the authenticity of these Jewish and Muslim converts.

So, to ensure that only truly faithful Christians remained within the realm,

the grand Inquisitor, reformulated the Inquisition to inquire not just into the defendant's religious faith and practices.

but into their linage.



Only those who could demonstrate their ancestry to those Christians, who resisted the Moorish invasion were secure in their status.
in the realm.
The Iberian peninsula may also have witnessed the first stirrings of anti- brown ( African), anti-Native American racism,
Purity of Blood:
Thus was born the idea of purity of blood. Not fully the biological concept of race but perhaps the first occidental use of blood heritage
as a category of religio - political membership.(Bernasconi and Lott 2000, vii; Hannaford 1996, 122-126; Frederickson 2002,-35).
Since this region was the first in Europe to utilize afrrican slavery while gradually rejecting the enslavement of fellow European Christians.
Iberian Christians may have come to associate Africans(Brown skinned people), as physically and mentally suitable 
only for menial labor.
In this they were influenced by Arab slave merchants,
who assigned the worst tasks to the dark skinned slaves while assigning more complex labor to light or tawny-skinned slaves.
( Frederickson 2002,29).
The "discovery" of the New World  by Iberian explorers also brought European Christians into contact with indigenous Americans
for the first time.
This resulted in the heated debate in Valladoid in 1550 between Bartolome Las Casas and Gino de Sepulveda
over whether the Indians were by nature inferior ad thus worthy of enslavement and conquest.
Whether due to Las Casa's victory over Sepulveda, or due to the hierarchical character of Spanish Catholicism
which did not require the dehumanization of other races in order to justify slavery,the Spanish empire did avoid the racilization
of its conquered peoples and African slaves. indeed it was the conflict between the Enlightment of Africans and indigenous Americans 
that fostered the development of the idea of race (Blum 2002, 111-112; Hannaford 1996, 149-150)
While events in the Iberian peninsula may have provided the initial stirrings of modern racial sentiments,
the concept of race , with its close links to ideas of deterministic biology, emerged with the rise of modern natural philosophy
and its concern with taxonomy ( Smith 2015). The first important articulation of the race concept came with the 1684 publication of " A New Division of the Earth" by Francois Bernier (1625-1688) ( Bernasconi and Lott 2000, viii; Hannaford 1996, 191,203).
Based on his travels through Egypt, India , and Persia, this essay presented a division of humanity 
into " four or five species, or  "races" of men, in particular whose difference is so remarkable that it may be properly made use of 
as the foundation for a new division of the earth"( Bernasconi and Lott 2000, 1-2).
 First were the peoples inhabiting most of Europe and North Africa, extending eastward through Persia, northern and central India, 
and right up to parts of contemporary Indonesia.
Despite their differing skin tones, these peoples nevertheless shared common physical characteristics,
such as hair texture and bone structure.
The second race
was constituted  by the people of the Sahara desert, who notably possessed smooth brown skin, thick lips, thin beards and wooly hair.
The peoples inhabiting lands from east Asia, through China, today's central Asian sates such as Uzbekistan, and westward into Siberia
and eastern Russia represented    the third race.


The Third Race
Marked by their "white" skin , broad shoulders,flat faces, flat noses, thin beards,long thin eyes, 
while the short and squat Lapps of northern Scandinavia constituted thee fourth "race". 
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 Ethnicity: Is the term for the culture of  people in a given geographic region. including their language ,heritage, religion and customs. To be a member of an ethnic group is to conform to some or all of those practices.

The Psychology of Name Calling:



Race and Ethnicity: are distinct.Not interchangeable. For example,
a Japanese- American would probably consider herself a member of the Japanese or East Asian culture.
But, if she doesn't engage in any of the practices or customs of their ancestor, she might not identify with
the ethnicity, but might instead consider herself to be American.                                              

It is widely accepted that Man's oldest common forefather was dark skinned, and that people became more pale as they moved further north out of Africa into colder climates with less sunlight
" comparisons between known skin pigmentation genes in chimpanzees and modern Africans show that dark skin
evolved along with the loss of body hair about 1.2 million years ago and is the ancestral state of all humans."
This is several million years after the time estimated for the * last common human-chimpanzee ancestor.
but at least 1  million years before the emergence of Homo Sapiens.
This suggests that the earliest species in Homo, may  have had lighter skin,
but that the advantageous genes for dark skin were universal by the time of the first true humans.... wikipedia
The first modern humans evolved about 200,000 years ago in Africa.
When they lost their hair ( or at least most of it), they needed some other protection of their skin from the sun-otherwise
they are prone to develop melanoma.* melanin is such a protection, and the rate of melanoma is much lower in dark skinned people.
There is also a nice correlation between latitude and skin color- the more to the north (and to some degree to the south as well)   you get, the lighter the skin color of the population gets.
 reason for this is likely the better ability to synthesize Vitamin D( for which you need sunlight on the skin):
The lightening of the skin occurred after humans moved to Europe:
  Melanin, is a broad term for a group of natural pigments found in most organisms.
Melanin, is produced by the oxidation of the amino acid tyro-sine. followed by polymerization.
The pigment is produced in a specialized group of cells known as Melanocytes.
There are three types of melanin: eumelanin, pheomelanin, neuromelanin.
The most common is eumelanin, of which there are two types - brown eumelanin, and black eumelanin.
Peomelanin, is a cysteine - containing red polymer of benzothiazine units largely responsible for red hair among other pigmentation.
Neuro melanin, is found in the brain . though it's function is unknown.

In humans, melanin is the primary determinant of skin color.
The melanin in the skin is produced by melanocytes, which are found in the basal layer of the epidermis.
Although,, in general, human beings possess a similar concentration of melanocytes in their skin
The melanocytes in some individuals and ethnic groups produce variable amounts of melanin.
Some humans have very little or no melanin synthesis in their bodies,
a condition known as albinism.
Both pheomelanin and eumelanin are found in human skin and hair.
but eumelanin is the most abundant melanin in humans,
as well as the form most likely to be deficient in albinism.
Melanogenesis: ( in the skin) occurs after exposure to UV radiation, causing the skin to visibly tan.
Melanin is an effective absorber of light.
the pigment is able to dissipate over 99.9% of absorbed U V radiation.Because of this property,
melanin is thought to protect skin cells from UVB radiation damage, reducing the risk of cancer.

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Furthermore, though exposure to UV radiation is associated with increased risk of malignant melanoma,
a cancer of the melanocytes, studies have shown a lower incidence for skin cancer in individuals with more concentrated
melanin, i.e. darker skin tone.

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 Although humans are sometimes divided into "races", the morphological variation between races is not indicative of major differences in DNA. For example, recent genetic studies show skin color may drastically change in as few as 100 generations, spanning 2,500 years as a result of environmental influence. Furthermore, the DNA of two humans chosen at random generally varies by less than 0.1 percent. This is less genetic variation than other types of hominids (such as Chimpanzees and Orangutans), Leading some Scientists to describe all humans as belong to the same race- the Human Race.


Skin Color: is one of the most conspicuous ways in which humans vary and has been widely used to define human "races."

(there is only one race).

new evidence indicates that variations in skin color are adaptive, and are related to the regulation of ultraviolet (UV)

radiation penetration in the integument and its direct and indirect effects on fitness. Using remotely sensed data on UV

radiation levels. hypotheses concerning the distribution of the sun reflectance and UV levels was observed at 545 nm.

near the absorption maximum for oxyhemoglobin, suggesting that the main role of melanin pigmentation in humans is regulation on the contents of UV radiation on the cutaneous blood vessels located in the dermis.

(2) predicted skin reflectance deviated little from observed values.

(3) In all populations for which skin reflectance data were available for male and females,

females were found to be lighter skinned than males.

(4) The clinal gradation of skin coloration observed among indigenous peoples is correlated with UV related levels

and represents a compromise solution to the conflicting physiological requirements of photoprotection and vitamin D.


The earliest members of the Hominid lineage probably had a mostly unpigmented or lightly pigmented integument

covered with dark black hair, similar to that of the modern chimpanzee.

The evolution of a naked , darkly pigmented integument occurred early in the evolution of the genus Homo.

A dark epidermis protected sweat glands from UV- induced injury , thus insuring the integrity of somatic thermoregulation.


Of greater significance to individual reproductive success was that highly melanized skin protected against

UV-induced photolysis of folate


*( Brandon & Eaton 1978, Science201, 625-626; Jablonski, 199, Proc. Australas. Soc. Hum. Biol.5, 455-462. 1999, Med. Hypotheses52, 581-582, a metabolite essential for normal development of the embryonic neural tube (Bower& Stanley,1989, The Medical Journal of Australia 150,613-19; Medical Research Council Vitamin Research Group, 1991, The Lancet 338, 31-37,) and spermatogenesis (Cosentino et al.,1990, Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci.U. S. A. 87,1431-1435;

Mathur et al.,1977, Fertility Sterility 28, 1356-1360).


As hominids migrated outside of the tropics, varying degrees of depigmentation evolved in order to permit UVB- induced synthesis of previtamin D(3).

The lighter color of the female skin may be required to permit synthesis of the relatively higher amounts of vitamin D(3)

necessary during pregnancy and lactation.

Skin coloration in humans is adaptive and labile.


Skin pigmentation : levels have changed more than once in human evolution.

Because of this skin coloration is of no value in determining phylogenetic relationships among modern human groups


1501:

African slaves in the New World Spanish settlers bring slaves from Africa to Santo Domingo (now the capital of the Dominican Republic. They were part of a group of slaves of other ethnicities.


1522:

Slave revolt: the Caribbean Slaves rebel on the Caribbean Island of Hispaniola, which now comprises Haiti and the Dominican Republic.


1562:

Britain joins Slave trade, John Hawkins, the first Briton to take part in the slave trade.makes a huge profit hauling human cargo from Africa to Hispaniola.


1581:

Slaves in Florida Spanish residents in St. Augustine, the first permanent settlement in Florida, import African slaves.


Roanoke Island:

In 1584, 1585, 1587:Sir Walter Raleigh funded expeditions to Roanoke island ( located on what is now called the Outer Banks).

On March 25, 1584, Queen Elizabeth I issued a charter allowing Raleigh to discover ,search, find out and view such remote heathen and barbarous lands, Countries, and territories... to have, hold, occupy, and enjoy.


 July 13,1584:

two ships left England and landed on the coast of North Carolina .

This landing marked the first time the English flag waved in the New

Raleigh, reported the discovery to Queen Elizabeth I, and the new territory was named Virginia, in honor of the Virgin Queen.


Raleigh sent a second expedition to Roanoke Island and appointed Ralph Lane as Governor.

The Lane3 colony was intended to be a military post for men only.

Because Lane's colony lacked sufficient supplies, this second settlement was also abandoned.


1587 collaspe of Roanoke Colony:


1588, The English defeat the Spanish Armada in A.d.

England begins building new colonies in North America.

England wanted to gain access to more gold and use mercantilism to increase its wealth from the colonies

England also wanted to spread Protestant Christianity.

Many people left England to gain their fortunes and escape religious persecution.


March 24, 1603:

After the death of Queen Elizabeth 1, James vi, of Scotland becomes James 1 upon ascending the English throne.


London Company:Also called the Virginia Company of London 


In Renaissance England, wealthy merchants were eager to find investment opportunities, so they established a number of 

companies to tade in various parts of the world.

Each company was made up of investors, known as " adventurer's", who purchased shares of company stock.


The Crown granted a charter to each company with a monopoly to explore, settle, or trade with a particular region of the world. 

Profits were shared among the investors according to the amount of stock that each owned . More than 6,300 Englishmen

invested in joint stock companies between 1585 and 1630,trading in Africa , the East Indies, the Mediterranean, and 

North America.



The company was an English joint stock company established by royal charter by James1, on April 10,1606 , with

 the purpose of establishing colonial settlements in North America. It was not founded as a joint stock company

but became one under its 1609 charter.It was responsible for establishing Jamestown Settlement, the first permanent English settlement in the present United States,in 1607,and in the process of sending additional supplies. inadvertently

settled the Somers Isles( present day Bermuda), the oldest- remaining English colony,in 1609.

In 1624, the company lost its charter , and Virginia became a royal colony, the Latin phrase on the left oval

" SIGILVM REGIS MAGNAE BRITANIAE FRANCIAE ET HIBERNIA " means " sign of the great king of Britain


The goal of the Virginia Company was clear enough;establish a permanent colony in America that would make profit for the Company.

The Company , chartered by King James I in April , 1606, was comprised of two divisions.

The Plymouth Company would establish a colony at the mouth of the Kennebec River near what is now

 Maine.


Though alike in the fact that, the patentees who founded them were tenants of the crown,   

they were quite unalike in their internal organization and to a considerable extent also in the character of the people who 

inhabited them.


The London Company made land fall on April 26, 1607, at the southern edge of the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay,

which they named Cape Henry, near present -day Virginia Beach. Deciding to move the encampment, on may4, 1607,

they established the Jamestown Settlement

upstream from its Chesapeake Bay, on the James River about 40 miles (64km).


The London Company would establish Jamestown in Virginia ,

England's first permanent settlement in the New World.


The territory granted to the London Company included the eastern coast of America from the 34th parallel (Cape Fear)

north to the 41st parallel (in Long Island Sound). As part of the Virginia Company and Colony, the London Company owned

a large portion of Atlantic and inland Canada,

The company was permitted by its charter to establish a 100-square-mlie(260km2) settlement within this area.


There were two ways to become a member of the London Company.

If you had money to buy shares in the Company but were inclined to remain safe in England you could invest as a "adventurer."

If you really were a adventurous and wanted to travel to the colony,you could become a member of the Company by becoming a "planter."


Planters were required to work for the Company for a set number of years.In exchange for this work the Company provided housing, clothing and food. at the end of the contract, the Planter would be granted a piece of land

and be entitled to a share of the profits made by the company.


The Company also recruited indentured servants, who would work for a set number of years , typically seven,

in exchange for passage to the colony. The lives of these colonists were difficult and unpleasant


Later in 1607, the Plymouth Company established its Popham Colony in present- day Maine,

but it was abandoned after about a year. By 1609, the Plymouth Company had dissolved.As a result, the charter for the London Company was adjusted with a new grant that extended from "sea to sea" of the previously - shared area

between the 39th and 40th parallel. It was amended in 1612 to include the new territory of the Isles (or Bermuda).


Investors in the Virginia Company hoped to profit from the natural resources of the new world.


The portion of the company's territory north of the 38th parallel was shared with the Plymouth Company,

with the stipulation that neither company found a colony within 100 miles of each other.


The Plymouth Company of London:

The second company, was empowered to settle 45 degrees North, encompassing what are present at Pennsylvania,

New Jersey, New York, and New England. The company paid for all costs of each colony and in return controlled all land and resources there, requiring all settlers to work for the Company.


The business of the company was the settlement of the Virginia colony, supported by a labor force of voluntary

transportees under the customary indenture system.

In exchange for 7 years of labor for the company, the company provided passage, food,protection and land ownership (if the worker survived).

March 24, 1603:
After the death of  Queen Elizabeth 1, James vi, of Scotland becomes James 1 upon ascending the English throne.
April 1606:
Bartholomew Gosnold obtained of  James1,  a charter to the Virginia Company of London for a tract of land on the mid-Atlantic coast.what are now Maryland, Virginia and Carolina, between Latitude 34 degree, and latitude 41degrees, North.
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 The early 1600s,
In the early 1600s, colonial officials found it difficult to find laborers to help them develop land in the " New World."
A new concept called indentured laborers developed in which British residents would sign contrats where they would work in the New World as payment for their passage and a small farm. Most of these indentured laborers were young people who planned on staying permanently. In  some cases British criminals were forced to become indentured servants
rather than serving time in prison.
They were not slaves,but were required to work 4-7 years to pay off their debt from passage and their farm.

Charter of 1606:
First Charter of Virginia, also known as the Charter of 1606 
is a document from King James I of England to the Virginia Company, assigning land rights to colonists for the stated purpose of propagating the Christian religion.
The land is described as coastal Virginia and    islands near to the coast, but the surveying numbers correspond to modern day Florida to Maine.
The patch of land itself would remain the property of the King, with the   London Company and the Plymouth Company ( the two divisions of the Virginia Company) as the King's tenants, and the settlers as subtenants.
The colony's council consisted of a council residing in London. 
The document designated the London Company as responsible for financing the project, which included recruiting settlers and also provided for their transport and supplies.
Purpose of Charter:
The charter only contains clauses to bring success to the king.
The King did not invest for he wanted no loss;however, he asked for 20 percent of profit as a way to never lose anything, 
but become richer.
The charter also granted those born in the colonies all rights of British citizens elsewhere and that they are compensated and protected in case they were robbed or spoiled by anyone.
Management of the Charter:
The King established a council and council members both in America and England to provide governance and management of the colonies and identified all council members.


The Council had the authority to enjoy the natural resources of the profits given to the king. " that the said several Councils of and for the said several Councils of and for the said several councils,shall and lawfully may , by virtue hereof, from time to time without any interruption of Us, our Heirs or Successors,give and take order, to  dig, mine, and search for all Manner of Mines of Gold,Silver,  Copper, as well within any part of their said several colonies, as of the said main lands on the backside of the same Colonies; and to have and enjoy the gold, silver, and copper, to be gotten thereof; to the use and behoof of the same Colonies, and the plantations thereof; Yielding therefore to us, our heirs and successors,the fifth part only of all the same gold and silver, and the fifteenth part of all the same copper, so to be gotten or had, as is aforesaid, without any other manner of profit or account , to be given or yielded to us, our heirs, or successors, for in respect of the same " The charter also gave authority to council members, to perform regular governance activities as long as  they conform to the King's approval.
The king intended to give the colonists all benefits of a government including the right to have their own currency.
Although the colonists had a great deal of freedom, they were subject to the kings' approval. "Moreover, our gracious will and pleasure is, and we do, by these presents, for us , our heirs, and successors, declare and set forth, that if any person or persons, which
shall be of any of the said colonies and plantations, or any of other, which  shall trick to the  said colonies at any time or times here after, transport any wares, merchandises, or commodities, out of any of the dominions, with a pretence to land , sell, or otherwise dispose of the same, within any the limits or precincts of any of the said colonies and plantations, and yet nevertheless, being at sea, or after he hath landed the same within any of the said colonies and plantations, shall carry the same into any other foreign country, with a purpose there to sell or dispose of the same, with out the licence of us, our heirs, and successors, in that behalf first had and
obtained;
VIEW BROWN GIRLS ROCK
December 20, 1606,:
Captain Christopher Newport leaves London with the Susan Constant, Godspeed, and Discovery
bound for Virginia.

April 26, 1607:
The three ships arrive in the Chesapeake Bay.
at the southern edge of the mouth of what they namedtheJames River
containing 105 men and boys as passengers and 39 crew members,
They were attacked by Native Americans , and the settlers moved north.
These settlers selected the site of Jamestown Island, further

April 29, 1607:
The English erect a cross at Cape Henry, claiming the land for James1 .

May  14, 1607:
104 male settlers land at the site they name James "Cittie" and establish the first permanent English settlement in North America.
They selected a site further upriver and on the northern shore, as the place to buld their fort.
May 1607:Newport Captain John Smith, and six others spend six days exploring the James River up to the falls.
Along the way they encounter numerous Indian peoples.
May 26 1607:
200 armed Indians attack Jamestown, killing 2 and wounding 11. 
In addition to survival, the early colonists were expected to make a profit for the owners of the Virginia Company. Although the settlers were disappointed that gold did not wash up on the beach and gems did not grow in the trees,
they realized there was great potential for wealth of other kinds in their new home.
From the outset settlers thought that the abundance of timber would be the primary leg of the economy,
as Britain's forests had long been felled. The seemingly inexhaustible supply of cheap American timber was to be the primary enabler of Englands (  and then Britain's) rise to merchant and navel supremacy.
June 8,1607:
Indians continue to harass the settlers: Gabriel Archer writes " by break of day, 3 of them had adventurously stolenunder our bulwark and hidden themselves in the long grass.

June 15,1607:
James Fort is completed in a triangle shape with three bulwarks sporting artillery; settlers also plant crops in two areas
according to George Percy.

Within the three- sided fort erected on the banks of the James , the settlers quickly discovered that they were, first and foremost, employees of the Virginia Company of London,following instructions of the men appointed by the Company to rule them.
In exchange, the laborers were armed, and received clothes and food from the common store.
After seven years they were to receive land of their own.
The gentlemen, who provided their own armor and weapons, were to be paid in land, dividends or additional shares of stock.
Initially, the colonist were governed by a president and seven member council selected by the king.Leadership problems quickly erupted. Jamestowns first two leaders coped with varying degrees of success with sickness, assualts by Native Americans,
poor food and water supplies,and class strife.
Many colonists were ill prepared to carve out a new settlement on the frontier.
When Captain John Smith, became Virginias third president, he proved the strong leader that the colony needed.
With the ascension of King James to the throne of England on March 24, 1603,the effort to colonize was renewed,
this time in the form of joint stock companies, which did not involve the public (Kings) treasury thus from a royal perspective 
a risk free endeavor.
Although a profit driven enterprise , the King was motivated by international rivalry and the propagation of religion.
And, the individuals who undertook the risk of venturing to the new world were motivated by a chance to improve their 
economic and social standing.
Thus King James awarded a patent to a group of investors which included detailed instructions for verything from where to place watchmen and with how many, It instructed Christopher Newport, Captain of the Susan Constant, and Bartholomew Gosnold ,     Captain of the Godspeedand leader of the expedition of three ships,on their duties upon reaching the land they named Virginia.
There were no instructions for administrative or governance.
The Charter of 1606:
The First Virginia Charter established provisions for the governance of the colony.
It was to be governed by a colonial council, which proved ineffective. Lord Delaware, was dispatched in 1610 to provide firmer governance of the colony. The Council back in London whose directives and interests Lord Delaware represented  was composed of 
Knights, gentlemen, and merchants who had invested in the company.
 This Charter also limited the jurisdiction of the Virginia Company of London to 100 miles from the seaboard
and from 38 degrees to 45 degrees latitude north.
June 22, 1607:
Newport sails for England with Susan Constant and Godspeed, laden with mineral samples that they hoped would
indicate the presence of gold.
August 22,1607:
Bartholomew Gosnold, one of the principal leaders in the colonization of Virginia dies.                                                                             Half the settlers die during the summer and early fall.

September 10 1607:
President Edward-Maria Wingfield, forcibly replaced by John Ratcliff.

December 1607
Smith leads an expedition up the Chickahominy River in search of food and is captured by Opechancanough,brother of Chief Powhatan.
Smith is brought before Chief Powhatan at the Indian Capital, Werowocomoco.
He later claims that Pocahontas, the Chiefs daughter, saves his life.

The First Crusade(1095-1102)


By the end of 1608
The number of English in Virginia Falls to 38

January 1608:
Smith returns to James town and is tried and condemned for causing the death of the men on his expedition. 
Christopher Newport returns on the John and Francis with the "first supply " of food and about 100 new settlers 
and halts Smith's execution.
January  7, 1608: 
Fire damages James Fort: " such a fire growing rapidly it consumed all the buildings of the fort and the storehouse of ammunition
and provision, so that there remained only three."The settlers soon began rebuilding the fort, including thee consruction
of a large church.
between. January & April 1608:
The Reverend Robert Hunt, Jamestown's first Anglican Minister , dies and is buried in the chancel of the newly constructed church. 

April 10,1608:
Newport sails for England carrying possible evidence of gold,but it will prove to be false .

June 2 1608:
Captain Nelson returned to England with Captain Smith's written account Virginia.
June through September 1608:
Captain John Smith leads fourteen men on a seven week exploration of Chesapeake Bay, and the Indian settlements along it;s shores.
He makes second voyage in late July to early September further.

September 10.1608:
Smith elected president of the colony; he would soon issue the edict " he that will not work shall not eat".
October 1608:

Newport lands with the " second supply", 70 new immigrants arrive, including 6 " glass-men" of either German or Polish
origin as well as two women. Mrs. Thomas Forrest and her maid. Anne Burras.

November 1608:
In Jamestown's first wedding, Anne Burras marries carpenter John Laydon.

End of 1608:
Newport travels to England carrying with him " tryals of pitch, Tarre, Glasse, Frankincense, Sope Ashes...."
Late 1608 or early 1609:
Smith orders the digging of James Fort's first well.

The Second Charter, May 23, 1609:
James 1, issues the second charter to Virginia Company which replaces the Council with a Governor who has absolute control.



June-July 1609:
The" Third Supply" of nine ships and 500 immigrants leave England, but a hurricane scatters the fleet and wrecks the flag ship.Sea Venture with Sir Thomas Gates. Sir George Somers  and John Rolf on a reef in Bermuda. all 150 on board are saved 
and begin rebuilding two boats from the wreckage.
August 1609:
The ships that survived the hurricane arrive at Jamestown with about 300 men, women, and children and a few provisions to feed them.

October 1609:
After Captain George Percy replaces Captain John Smith as leader, Smith is badly wounded in a suspicious gunpowder explosion
and forced to return to England . The ship's departure is the signal for the Powhatan's to attack the English.all along the James River.

Winter 1609-1610:
Chief Powhatan has warriors lay siege to James fort,, trapping about 300 settlers inside. Settlers eat horses,snakes,rats,cats, dogs and shoe leather to avoid starvation that kills all but 60 of the forts residents by the springtime. 
The drafting of the Constitution of the United States began on May 25,1787,
when the Constitutional Convention met for the first time with a quorum at the Pennsylvania State House ( now Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to revise the Articles of Confederation,
and ended on September 17,1787.
1609 through 1610;
 One of the settlers trapped in James fort is a fourteen year old girl who arrived on the " Third Supply . " When she dies, desperate settlers resort to survival cannibalism.


1609 -1610:
Captain Gabriel Archer ,one of Jamestown's most important early leaders, dies and is the second honored with burial in the church chancel.

May 23,1610:
Lieutenant Thomas Gates , John Rolf, Ralph Hamor , Sir George Somers, William Stracher , and other survivors of the Sea venture a
 arrive at Jamestown, in two ships built in their 10 months on Bermuda, The Deliverance 3 and Patience. They find only 60 survivors and the fort in ruins.


May 24,1610:
Gates issues " the Laws Divine, Moral, and martial," introducing strict codes of behavior and severe punishment for transgressions.

June 7, 1610:
Gates decides to leave Jamestown. A lot of material is left behind as the survivors pack onto ships to return to England.

June 8,1610:
Gate's convoy coming down  the James River meets the resupply led by Governor Thomas West,
who demands a return to Jamestown.


June 10,1610:
Lord De La Warr orders the settlers to clean up and reestablish James Fort.
The church is repaired and new buildings constructed.

August 9, 1610:
English launch major attack on the Paspahegh village., executing the queen and her children, burning house and cutting down corn fields.

1611:
John Rolf experiments with growing tobacco seeds. Nicotiana tabacum from Bermuda;
native Virginia tobacco was Nicotiana rustica.
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March 28 1611:
De La Warr, and Gates leave for England, leaving George Percy in charge as Deputy Governor with only about 150 settlers left due to continuing problems with disease.

May 1611:
Sir Thomas Dale arrives with 300 "men of war"

June1611:
The English capture three men from a Spanish expedition at the mouth of the James ; one of the them
is Don Diego de Molina. who will be held captive in Virginia for five years.
August 2, 1611:
Lt. Governor Dale Leads 350 men to build Henricus up river  near the falls of the James as an alternative
to the swampy and dangerous Jamestown.

King James1 renews the charter for the Virginia Company and gives it more self -governance. He also authorizes lotteries
to raise money for the venture.

1612:
The English colonize Bermuda:
1612:
First commercial tobacco crop is raised in Jamestown, Virginia.John Rolf exports first crop of  improved tobacco .

April 1613:
Pocahontas is captured from a Patawomeck Indian village by Capt. Samuel Argall and brought to Jamestown.


October, 29, 1613: Europeans referred to as "white" people
On October 29, 1613, The Jacobean Playwright Thomas Middleton's play " The Triumphs of Truth" was first performed.
The phrase was first uttered by the character  of an African King who looks out upon an English audience and declares: "I see amazement set upon the faces / of these white people,wond 'rings and strange gazes. 
This may be the earliest printed example of a European author referring to fellow Europeans as white people".
( This may serve to prove the historian Neil Irvin Painter's reminder in  The History of White People (2010), "race is an idea, not a fact".
Literature scholar, Roxanne Wheeler reminds us in " The Complexion of Race" (2000),
there was an earlier moment in which biological racism...was not inevitable'. 
Since Europeans didn't always think of themselves as "white", there is good reason to think that race is socially constructed,
is arbitrary. If the idea of " white people" ( and thus every other 'race ') has a history, then the concept itself is based less on any kind of biological reality than it is in the variable contingencies of social construction.
our particular criteria concerning how we think about race did develop, and it did so in service to colonialism ( and their handmaiden : slavery), bolstered by a positive language, the idea of race became so normalized that eventually the claim that anyone would have coined such an obvious phrase as "white people" would begin to sound strange.
Race might not be real, but racism very much is.
Matoaka, ( Pocahontas Apil 5, 1614:
A year later, the English commoner John Rolfe of Jamestown in Virginia took as his bride an Algonquin princess named Matoaka, whom we call Pocahontas.marry at Jamestown.
February 1614:
Gates departs Virginia , leaving Dale as Deputy Governor,



1615:
Pocahontas gives birth to a son Thomas Rolfe.
1616:

John Rolfe records the English Population in Virginia.
, indicating there are 351 settlers at 6 settlements..

May 1616:
John Rolfe, Pocahontas, their son and a group of attendant Indians depart Virginia for England with Sir Thomas Drake.

June1616:
The Virginia Company institutes the "head right" system, giving 50acres to anyone who would pay fare, and 50 
additional acres for each person brought with him, this encourages further settlement by gentlemen and
lays the economic foundation for what will become a system of legal slavery.
John Rolfe, Pocahontas's, husband , had introduced tobacco from the Caribbean in 1610.
he returned to Virginia and became a member of the house of Burgess.

1617:
Governor Samuel Argall orders the construction of a new church "50 foot long and twenty foot broad"
just east of the first church building at Jamestown (where Pocahontas and Rolfe were married).
This new building will be a wooden church built on a foundation of cobblestones one foot wide
capped by a wall one brick thick

March 17, 1617:
Pocahontas dies in Gravesend, England, just after beginning the return trip to Virginia with her husband and son.
Rolfe returns to Virginia, but leaves his son to be raised in England.
1618:
Chief Powhatan dies
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1619 :
George Yeardley brings "The Charter of Grants  and Liberties" to form a new government in which
white men of property get to pick representatives to make laws for themselves in an assembly meeting at Jamestown.

July 30,1619:
The House of Burgesses meets for first time , in the Jamestown church; it's first law requires tobacco to be sold for at least three shillings per pound.

* August 1619:
The first Africans arrive in Jamestown,traded off of an English ship , the " White Lion" a privateer owned by Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick.
The approximately 20 Africans on that ship , originally from Angola,had been seized by the British crew from a Portuguese slave ship, the Sao Joao Bautista.which landed at Point Comfort. Some of these Africans are treated like indentured servants and work several years before earning their freedom; others likely remained enslaved.
by 1619, a system of indentured service was fully developed in the colony;
Once freed of their debt, some of the Africans joined the community , eventually owning slaves of their own.
It wasn't until 1640, when slavery first appeared in Virginia when African John Punch was sentenced to slavery
 for life, after trying to flee his indentured labor service.
The European men who fled with him were, however only sentenced to one additional year of indentured labor.

*This incidence  is viewed in history, as the first legal sanctioning of slavery in the English colonies and the first legal distinctionmade between Europeans and Africans.
The next instance of slavery that we see in Virginia is the civil case between Anthony Johnson ( a freed African)
and Robert Parker. John Casor an African indentured servant complained that his master Anthony Johnson
held him past his indentured time.
A neighbor Robert Parker threatened Johnson that he would testify in court and touted that he would lose some
of his lands if he did not free Casor.
Johnson then freed Casor.
Casor then entered into an indentured service with Parker.
Feeling bamboozled Johnson sued Parker for possession over Casor.
The court ruled that Parker illegally took Casor and that he belonged to his rightful master  for the "duration of his life."
Casor was now a slave.
March 1620:
32 Africans were documented as residing in Virginia.
by 1650, this had increased to about 300 Africans, about 1% of an estimated
After 1620:
With growing demand for tobacco on the continent, the Company arranged to sell Virginia tobacco in the Netherlands,
The law of the land from 1624:
 mandated that European Virginians worship in the Anglican church ( Church of England) and support its upkeep
with the taxes.
Where religion was an integral part of everyday life in Virginia, the lines blurred between  religious and civil authority.
Virginia gentlemen, who supported establishment but disliked centralized church authority , gained control of parish vestries and county courts to secure their power over religious matters.
Although Anglicans tolerated protestant dissenters, they found the traditional religious views of native Americans
and Africans beyond sanction. But English colonists made only fitful and often grudging efforts to bring Africans, and
native Americans into the established church.
The Powhatans and Indigenous people further inland proved resistant to Christianity.
For Africans, the oppression of slavery inevitably forced them to abandon a purely African world view.
Still, they did not come to Christianity in great numbers until evangelicals began gathering converts of both ethnic groups, after the mid-18th century.
Although some Africans  and Europeans forged bonds through their shared evangelical experience, Virginia's
celebrated statute for religious freedom would have only superficial meaning for Africans, after the war.
In the 17th century, small numbers of slaves had recognized that they could gain their freedom through baptism ,
but the General Assembly closed this loophole in the 1667.
Over the next century , most slave owners and Anglican ministers ignored the spiritual lives of African Americans.
Throughout the colonial period, the established church was supported and reinforced by other formal institutions.
Virginia lacked a bishop. Hence, control of the religious matters was largely left in the hands of local institutions
dominated by the gentry.
Vestrymen became the dominant influence on church affairs by the end of the 17th, century.
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William Tucker,1624:
was the first born of African parents, in the British Colonies.
His birth symbolized the beginnings of a distinct  identity along the eastern coast
of what would eventually become the United States.
Born near Jamestown, Virginia, the son of "Anthony and Isabell", two indentured servants.
According to the 1624-1625 Virginia Census,22 Africans lived in Virginia at the time of Tucker's birth.
The first 20, arrived in 1619 and all of them worked under indentured servitude contracts.
These men and women were not slaves  because Virginia's General Assembly had not yet worked out the terms
for enslavement in the colony.
Consequently these first Africans in Virginia received the same rights, duties, privileges, responsibilities
and punishments as their european indentured counterparts from Great Britain.
They also worked under the same terms and many but not all were given land at the end of their period of indenture.
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In fact they, and their descendants became the nucleus of the African population which existed in Virginia
 prior to the Civil War.
William Tuckers parents were among the first 22 Africans.
They worked for a Captain William Tucker, the Virginia envoy to the Pamunkey Indians,
and his wife Mary Tucker.In the early 1620s Captain Tucker allowed the couple to wed
though the practice violated the English custom for indentured servants.
1625:
Growth of the African population; 23
1626:
The Dutch West India Company imports 11 African male slaves into the Netherlands.
1636 :
Colonial North America's slave trade begins when the first American slave carrier,Desire, is built and launched in Massachusetts.
1639 /40:
The General Assembly of Virginia specifically excludes Africans, from the requirement s of possessing arms.
1640: Status changed to "servant for life"
John Punch, a runaway African indentured servant, is sentenced to servitude for life.His two European companions are given extended
terms of servitude. Punch is the first documented slave for life.                                                                                                                  

1640:
New Netherlands law forbids residents from harboring or feeding running slaves.After DNA testing,

1641:
The D'Angola marriage is the first recorded marriage between Africans in New Amsterdam.

1641:
 Massachusetts is the first colony to legalize slavery.
1642: 
African women are deemed taxable, 
Creating a distinction between African and English women.
1643:
The New England Confederation of the Plymouth Massachusetts,  Connecticut, and New haven adopts a fugitive slave law.
1648:
Growth of the African population; 300
1650:
Connecticut legalizes slavery.
1652:
Massachusetts requires all African and Native American, servants to receive military training.
1654
A Virginia court grants Africans the right to hold slaves.
1657
Virginia passes a fugitive slave law.


1660:
Charles II, King of England, orders the Council of Foreign Plantations to devise strategies for converting slaves and servants
to Christianity.

1661:
Virginia passed its first law allowing any free person the right to own slaves.
In previous years , Africans were legally deemed to be "indentured servants",
including one, John Casor who was declared indentured for life in 1655.

1661:
Virginia formally recognized slavery.
By law, European indentured servants were forbidden from running awa with an African servant.

1662:Life Servitude; Hereditary Slavery
Virginia passed a law that stated children would be free or bonded based on the status of the mother.
This meant that a child born to an enslaved woman would also be enslaved.
Making Slavery Hereditary.

  1662;
 Massachusetts reverses a ruling dating back to 1652, which allowed Africans to train in arms. New York. Connecticut, and new Hampshire pass similar laws restricting the bearing of arms.
1663
In Gloucester County, Virginia the  first documented slave rebellion in the colonies takes place.

1663
Maryland legalizes slavery.

1663
Charles II, King of England, gives the Carolinas to proprietors. 
Until the 1680s , most settlers in the region are small landowners from Barbados.
1664:
New York, and New Jersey legalize slavery.

1964
Maryland is the first colony to take legal action against marriages between European women and African men.

1964
The state of Maryland mandates lifelong servitude for all African slaves. New York, New Jersey, the Carolinas, and Virginia
all pass similar laws. 

1666:
Maryland passes a fugitive slave law.
1667,
Virginia lawmakers say baptism does not bring freedom to Africans. The statute is passed because some slaves used their status as a Christian in the 1640s and 1650s to argue for their freedom or for freedom for a child.
Legislators also encourage slave owners to Christianize their enslaved men, women and children.

1667
Virginia declares that Christian baptism will not alter a person's status as a slave.
1668:
Free African women , like enslaved females over the age of 16, are deemed taxable. The Virginia General Assembly says freedom
does not exempt African women from taxation.

1668
New Jersey passes a fugitive slave law. 
1669:
An act about the " casual killing of slaves" says that if a slave dies while resisting his master, the act will not be presumed to have occurred with " prepensed malice".
1670:
The state of Virginia prohibits free Africans and Native Americans from keeping Christian servants.Christian servants.
Additional laws regarding slavery of Africans were passed n the seventeenth century and codified into Virginia's
first slave code in 1705.
 Among laws affecting slaves was one of 1662, which said that children born in the colony would take the social status of their mothers  , regardless of who their fathers were.
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1671:
Growth of the African population; 2,000
1672:
It  becomes legal to kill or wound an enslaved person who resists arrest. Legislators also deem that the owner of any slave killed as he resisted arrest will receive financial compensation for the loss of an enslaved laborer.
Legislators also offer a reward to Indians who capture escaped slaves and return them to a justice of the peace.
1674:
New York declares that Africans who convert to Christianity after their enslavement will not be freed.

 1676;  The first armed rebellion in the American colonies
In  Virginia, African slaves and African and European servants band together to participate in Bacon's Rebellion.                                       Poor white  indentured servants and enslaved Africans form an alliance against bond servitude.
The ruling class responds by hardening the racial caste  of slavery in an attempt to divide the two races from subsequent united uprisings.
1680- 1705: Virginia Slave Codes are passed, in direct response to Bacon's rebellion.
Slave laws reflect racism and the deliberate separation of Africans and Europeans.
color becomes the determining factor.
Conscious efforts to rigidly police slave conduct.

1680:
Virginia's General Assembly restricts the ability of slaves to meet at gatherings, including funerals.
It becomes legal for a white person or person to kill an escaped slave who resists capture. 
Slaves are also forbidden to:
1). arm themselves for either offensive or defensive purposes. Punishment; 20 lashes on one's bare back.
2) Leave the plantation without the written permission of one's master, mistress, or overseer. Punishment; 20 lashes on one's bare back.
3)." Lift up his hand against any Christian." Punishment: 30 Lashes on one's bare back.
1680:
Growth of the African population; 3,000
1682:
Virginia declares that all imported African servants are slaves for life.
1684:
New York makes it illegal for slaves to sell goods.
1688:
The Pennsylvania Quakers pass first formal anti slavery resolution.
1691:
Virginia prohibits the manumission of slaves within its borders. manumitted slaves are forced to leave the colony.
Virginia passes the first anti- miscegenation law, forbidding marriages between European, Africans and Native Americans.
1) Any European person married to an African or mulatto is banished 
and a systematic plan is established to capture " outlying slaves."
2) If an outlying slave is killed while resisting capture, the owner receives financial compensation for the laborer.

3) Partners in a marriage between an African and a European, cannot stay in the colony for more than three months
after they are married.
4)  A fine of 15 pounds sterling is levied on an English woman who gives birth to a mulatto child.
The  fine is to be paid within a month of the child's birth. If the woman cannot pay the fine, as an indentured servant,
she faces an additional five years of servitude after the completion of her indenture.
5) A mulatto child born to a indentured European servant will serve a 30-year indenture.

6) A master must transport an emancipated slave out of Virginia within six months of receiving his or her freedom.

1691:
South Carolina passes the first comprehensive slave codes.
1692:
Slaves are denied the right to a jury trial for capital offenses. 
A minimum of four justices of the peace hear evidence and determine the fate of the accused.
Legislators also decide that enslaved individuals are not permitted to own horses, cattle, and hogs after December 31, of that year.
1694:
Rice cultivation is introduced into Carolina.
Slave importation increases dramatically.
1696:
The Royal African Trade Company loses its monopoly and New England colonists enter the slave trade.
1700:
Pennsylvania, legalizes slavery.

Growth of African Population: 16,390
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1702:
New York passes An Act for Regulating Slaves.
Among the prohibitions of this act are meetings of more than three slaves, trading by slaves, and testimony by slaves in court.

1703:
Massachusetts requires those masters who liberate slaves to provide a bond of 50 pounds or more in the event that freedman
becomes a public charge.
1703:
Connecticut assigns the punishment of whipping to any slaves who disturb the peace or assaults Europeans.
Rhode Island makes it illegal for Africans and Native Americans to walk at night without passes.
1705:
The Virginia Slave Code codifies slave status, declaring all non- Christian servants entering the colony to be slaves.
It defines all slaves as real estate, acquits masters who kill slaves during punishment, forbids slaves and freedmen, from physically assaulting Europeans.
And denies slaves the right to bear arms or move abroad without written permission.

1705:
The Virginia General Assembly declared that all those not born  into Christianity in their native land would be enslaved for life.
1) African free men could lose the right to hold public office.
2) Africans free, and enslaved are denied the right to testify as witnesses in court cases.
3)All African mulatto and Native American slaves are considered real property.
4) Enslaved men are not allowed to serve in the militia.
1705:
New York declares that punishment by execution will be applied to certain runaway slaves.

1705:
Massachusetts makes marriage and sexual relations between Africans and Europeans illegal.
1706:
New York declares Africans, Native Americans, and slaves who kill Europeans to be subject to the death penalty.

1706:
Connecticut requires that Native Americans, mulattos, and African servants gain permission from their masters to engage in trade.
1708:
The Southern colonies require militia captains to enlist and train one slave for every European soldier.


1708:
Rhode Island requires that slaves be accompanied by their masters when visiting the homes of free persons.

1708:
Africans outnumber Europeans in South Carolina.

1710:
new York forbids Africans, Indigenous People, and mulattos from walking at night without lighted lanterns.

1711:
Pennsylvania prohibits the clandestine importation of Africans and Native Americans

1711:
Rhode Island prohibits the clandestine importation of African and Native Americans.

1712:
Pennsylvania prohibits the importation of slaves.

1712:Slave Revolt
New York slaves in New York City kill Europeans during an uprising, later squelched by the militia. 
Nineteen rebels are executed.

1712:
New York declares it illegal for Africans, Native Americans, and slaves to murder other Africans, Native Americans , and slaves.

1712:
New York forbids freed Africans, American Natives, and mulatto slaves from owning real estate and holding property.

1712:
Charleston, South Carolina, slaves are forbidden from hiring themselves out.
1715:
Rhode Island legalizes slavery.

1715:
Maryland declares all slaves entering the province and their descendants to be slaves for life.
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1717:
New York enacts a fugitive slave law.
1720:
Growth of African population; 26,559
1723:
Virginia abolishes manumissions.

1724:
French Louisiana prohibits slaves from marrying without permission of their owners.
1730-1750
The number of male and female slaves imported to the North American British colonies balances out for the first time.
1730:
Growth of African population; 30,000
1731:
The Spanish reverse a 1730 decision and declare that slaves fleeing to Florida from Carolina will not be sold.

1732:
Slaves aboard the ship of New Hampshire Captain John Major kill both captain and crew, seizing the vessel and cargo.

1733:
 Quaker Elihu Coleman's , A Testimony against That Anti- Christian Practice of Making Slaves of Men, is published.
1735: 
under a English law Georgia prohibits the importation and use of African slaves.

1735: Louis xv, king of France, declares that when an enslaved woman gives birth to the child of a free man,  
neither mother nor child can be sold. Further , after a certain time, mother and child will be freed.
1738:
Georgia's trustees permit the importation of  African slaves.

1738:
Spanish Florida promise freedom  and land to runaway slaves.
1739: 
Slaves in Stono, South Carolina rebel, sacking and burning an armory and killing Europeans. 
Some 75 slaves in south Carolina steal weapons and flee toward freedom in Florida ( then under Spanish rule),
Crushed by the South Carolina militia, the revolt results in the deaths of 40 Africans and 20 Europeans.
The Colonial militia puts an end to the rebellion before slaves are able to reach freedom in Florida.
1740:
South Carolina passes the comprehensive Negro Act making it illegal for slaves to move abroad. assemble in groups, raise food, 
earn money, and learn to read English.
Owners are permitted to kill rebellious slaves if necessary.

1740:
Georgia and Carolina attempt to invade Florida in retaliation for the territory's policy toward runaway slaves.

Growth of African population; 60,000
1749:
Georgia repeals its prohibition and permits the importation of African slaves.
1751:
George II  repeals the 1705 act, making slaves real estate in Virginia

1758:
Pennsylvania Quakers forbid their members from owning slaves or participating in the slave trade.
1760:
New Jersey prohibits the enlistment of slaves in the militia without their master's permission.

1767:
The Virginia House of Burgess boycotts the British slave trade-in protest of the Townsend Acts. 
Georgia and the Carolinas follow suit.
1770:
Escaped slave Crispus Attucks, is killed by British forces in Boston Massachusetts.
 he is one of the  first colonists to die in the war for independence.

1772:
James Albert UKawsaw Gorongosa's writes the first autobiographical slave narrative.
1773:  
the first  separate  African church in America is founded in South Carolina.

1773:
Slaves in Massachusetts unsuccessfully petition the government for their freedom.

1773:
Phillis  Wheatley becomes the first published African poet when a London publishing company releases aa collection of her verse.
1774:
The first Continental Congress bans trade with Britain and vows to discontinue the slave trade after the 1st of December.

1774:
Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Georgia prohibit the importation of slaves.
1774:
Virginia takes action against slave importation.
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1775: The American Revolution begins
The slave population in the colonies is nearly 500,000.
In Virginia, the ratio of free colonists slaves is nearly 1:1. In South Carolina it is approximately 1:2.

1775: Georgia takes action against slave importation.

1775
Abolitionist Society Anthony Benezet of Philadelphia founds the world's first abolitionist society. Benjamin Franklin becomes its
president in 1787 

1775:
In April, the first battles of the Revolutionary war are waged between the British and Colonial armies at Lexington and Concord
Massachusetts. 
African Minutemen participate in the fighting.
1775:
In July, George Washington announces a ban on the enlistment of free Africans and slaves in the colonial army. By the end of the year,
he reverses the ban, ordering the Continental Army to accept the service of free Africans.

1775:
In November, Virginia Governor John Murray, Lord Dunmore, issues a proclamation announcing that any slave fighting on the
side of the British will be liberated.
1776: 
The Declaration of Independence is signed :                                                                                                                                                 In Philadelphia Pennsylvania, members of the Continental Congress sign the Declaration of Independence.

1776:
 In Philadelphia Pennsylvania, the Society of Friends, also known as the Quakers, forbids its members from holding slaves.

1776:
Delaware prohibits the importation of slaves.
1777:
Vermont is the first of the thirteen colonies to abolish slavery and enfranchise all adult males.

1777:
New  York enfranchises all free propertied men regardless of color or prior servitude.
1778: 
Rhode Island forbids the removal of slaves from the state.

1778:
Virginia prohibits the importation of slaves.
1780:
Delaware makes it illegal to enslave imported Africans.

1780:
A freedom clause in the Massachusetts constitution is interpreted as an abolishment of slavery.
Massachusetts enfranchises all men regardless of ethnicity.

1780: An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery

1783:
American Revolution ends Britain and the infant United States sign the Peace of Paris treaty.
1784:
Abolition effort  Congress narrowly defeats Thomas Jefferson's proposal to ban slavery in new territories after 1800.
1787:
The drafting of the Constitution of the United States began on May 25,1787,
when the Constitutional Convention met for the first time with a quorum at the Pennsylvania State House ( now Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to revise the Articles of Confederation,
and ended on September 17,1787.
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The original U.S. Constitution, was put into writing on September 17,1787 by the constitutional convention
and is housed at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
Three - fifths compromise 1787
A law that states that three out of every five slaves be counted as a person.
Reached among delegates during the 1787, United States Constitutional Convention.
whether and, if so, how slaves would be counted when determining a states population  for legislative and taxing purposes
was important as this number would then be used to determine the "number of seats" that the state would have
in the United States House of Representatives for the next ten years.
The compromise solution was to count three out of every five slaves as a person for this purpose.
It's effect was to give the Southern states a third more seats in Congress and a third more electoral votes
than if slaves had been ignored, but fewer than if slaves and free people had been counted equally.
Formation of the Political Parties 1789:
The opinions and views of the politicians of the time, relating to the government of the new nation differed widely.
Many of thhe wealthy men had roots in the system of monarchy of the British and believed that monarchy was the 
best form of government. Others had the totally opposite view that a government should be ruled by the people.
The Pro- monarchist realized that the American people, who had fought for the independence from the Breitish, would
 tolerate the establishment of a monarchy A compromise was reached in that all of the early politicians supported a government that adhered to the U.S. Constitution.

Independent Party 1789
George Washington became the 1st President of the United States.
He was not formally affiliated with any Political Parties during his two terms in office and therefore
classed as an Independent.
The Independent Party focused on the establishment of the Constitution.
One of the key events during his presidency was the formation of two political parties
The Federalists and the Anti-Federalists (who became the Democratic - republican party).
All members of the new government supported him as an impartial president and wanted to give the Constitution
a fair trial.

The First Party 1792-1824:
The political party system that existed in the United States between roughly 1792, and 182
It featured two national parties competing for control of the presidency, Congress and the states:
The federalist Party, created largely by Alexander Hamilton, and the rival Jeffersonian Democratic Republican Party,
formed by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison,
usually called at the time the Republican Party.
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 1793,The Fugitive Slave Act:
was an act of the United States Congress to give effect to the fugitive slave Clause
of the Constitution, which was later superseded by the Thirteenth Amendment
the former guaranteed a right for a slave holder to recover an escaped slave.
The Act, " An Act respecting fugitives from justice,and persons escaping from justice, and persons escaping from the service of their masters,"created the legal mechanism by which that could be accomplished.
The Act was,strengthened at the insistence of the slave states of the South by the Compromise of 1850,
which required even the governments and the residents of free states to enforce the capture and return of fugitive slaves.

This law put fugitive slaves at risk for recapture for the rest of their lives,but some slaveholders did not think it was strong enough. It also classified children born to fugitive slave mothers as slaves and the property of their mother's master for
 the rest of their lives.
The Democratic - Republican Party History: The Federalist Political Party:
The history of the Democratic- Republican Party began with the rise of the Federalist political party that believed that the national
government should have more power than the state governments.
Many of the Federalist were wealthy arstocrats and had roots in the British  system of monarchy asnd believed that the government shold be run by  the elite.
The notion that the government should be run by ordinary people was completely foreign to them.
The leaders of the Federalist Party were Alexander Hamilton and John Adams.

Democratic - Republican Party History: The Anti-Federalist: 
The Anti- Federalists were totally opposed to the federalist idea of government. The Anti-Federalists believed that the vast majority of ordinary less educated Americans, had the commonsense and skills required to run the government.
The last thing they wanted was a government based on the class conscious British system.
1794:Cotton 
Eli Whitney patents his device for pulling seeds from cotton. 
the invention turns cotton into cash crop of the American South,
 and creates a huge demand for slave labor.
Democratic - Republican Party History: The First Change  Of Name to Republicans: 
The Anti-Federalists at first changed their name in 1792 tothe Republican Party, sometimes referred to as the Jeffersonian Republicans
to avoid confusion with the modern Republican Party.
Republicanism is a political values system that emphasizes the ideas of the liberty and " unalienable" rrights as their central values,
rejecting aristocracy, corruption annd inherited political power.
The Rrepublican Party supported states' rights and a strictt interpretation of the Constitution.
Democratic-Republican Party History: The Change of Name to Democratic- Republicans:
The name Democratic- Republican Party was at first a derogatory name for the party that was applied by the Federalists.
The derisive term "Democratic" was added to convey the extreme actions taken in the name of Democracy during the French Revolution and the dictator ship of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
The Neutralty Proclamation of 1793 issued by George Washington had resulted in the residnatin of Thomas Jefferson
as Secretary  of State. 
Jefferson and the Republicans believed they were th4e only anti-monarchical party in America, and that the Federalists were enemies
of a republic, liberty and the rights of man.
The  admired many of the ideals of the French citizens with their strong anti-monarchist sentiments and their belief of the principle
of the government by the people.
The Federalists plan to discredit the Republicans backfired the derisive name stuck, and the Republicans were happy to call their party the Democratic- Republicans.
Democratic- Republican Party Presidents:
Thomas Jefferson         (1801  -   1809) 
James Madison            ( 1809  -   1817)
James Monroe             ( 1817  -   1825)
John Quincy Adams     (  1825 -  1829 )
Democratic- Republican Party: Political Base:
The Democratic - Republican Party was founded based in the rural South and the West, supported by the farmers, laborers, skilled workers and planters as opposed to the Federalists whose political base  was in the industrialized North
supported by the merchants, manufacturers, and bankers.
The Federalists:
Democratic - Republican Party Beliefs:
The Democratic- Republican partybwas founded based on their beliefs that the country should be run by two co-equal ares of government- the state Governments  and the National Government, both havinnngg equl power and able to operate fairly 
independently of the other. 
The beliefs of the Democratic- Republican Party were
the principles of Republicanism
2) States Rights
3) Protection  of the rights of citizens and the support of the poorer Americans and recent immigrants
4) Opposition to the financial plans of Alexander Hamilton and the establishment of the National Bank ( First Bank of the United States)
5) Opposition to an increased national debt.
6)Opposition to an enlarged navy and army with increased military spending
7) Opposition to the aristocracy, elitism and monarchy
8)Opposition to the exclusive power of a central government
9) Av strict interpretation of the Constitution.
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The Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton, John Adams and Governeur Morris belonged to the group of men who believed a
monarchy to be the best form of government. As this was not  possible, their  aim was to give the new central government , and the richer classes, the greatest possible amount of power.
There was concern that the vast majority of ordinary, less educated people, would have the skills required to run the new government.
From this original stance the formation of. the political parties had begun with the formation of the Federalist Political Party.
The Federalist believed in the ideas of nationalism and industrialization. 
The concept of Federalism is the beliefs of a federal organization of self- governing units, such as a confederation.
John Adams was a member of the Federalist political party which favored the administration of President George Washington.
The Federalist Party:
The Federalist Party, originated in opposition to the Democratic- Republican Party in America during President George Washington's 
first administration.Within the executive and congressional branches of the government.
Known for their support of a strong national government the Federalist emphasized commercial and diplomatic harmony with 
Britain following the signing of the Jay Treaty.
The Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton, John Adams and Governeur Morris belonged to the group of men who believed a
monarchy to be the best form of government. As this was not  possible, their  aim was to give the new central government , and the richer classes, the greatest possible amount of power.
The Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton, John Adams and Governeur Morris belonged to the group of men who believed a
monarchy to be the best form of government. As this was not  possible, their  aim was to give the new central government , and the richer classes, the greatest possible amount of power.
There was concern that the vast majority of ordinary, less educated people, would have the skills required to run the new government.
From this original stance the formation of. the political parties had begun with the formation of the Federalist Political Party.
The Federalist believed in the ideas of nationalism and industrialization. 
The concept of Federalism is the beliefs of a federal organization of self- governing units, such as a confederation.
John Adams was a member of the Federalist political party which favored the administration of President George Washington.

By 1796 politics in every state was nearly monopolized by the two parties, with party newspapers and caucuses becoming especially
effective tools to mobilize voters.
1797:
John Adams is elected president for the Federalist Party who believed that the new central government, and the well educated , 
wealthy classes, should be given the greatest power of government. 
 The Federalist Papers
The Federalist Papers explained the Constitution to the American people, and promoted the concept of Federalism.
The Federalists appealed to the business community, and to conservatives who favored banks, national over state government, manufacturing, and (in world affairs) preferred Britain and opposed the French Revolution.                                                                       
The Federalists promoted the financial system of Treasury Secretary Hamilton, which emphasized federal assumption of state debts,
a tariff to pay off those debts, a national bank to facilitate financing , and encouragement of banking and manufacturing. 
Both parties originated in national politics, but soon expanded their efforts to gain supporters and voters in every state. 
Anti-Federalist  ( who became the Democratic - Republican Party:
A loose political coalition of popular politicians, such as Patrick Henry, who unsuccessfully opposed the strong central government
envisioned in the U.S. Constitution of 1787, and whose agitations led to the addition of the Bill of Rights.
The first in a long line of states rights advocates, they feared the authority of a single national government, upper class dominance,
inadequate separation of powers, and loss of control over local affairs
Believed that the vast majority of ordinary less educated people, had the skills and common sense required
to run the government.
The Anti-Federalist Party was opposed to the John Adams, and the Federalist Party.
The Federalist were dominant until 1800, while the Republicans were dominant after 1800.
They prevented ratification of the Constitution until after the new government had been established.
Stilling their opposition in order to support the first administration of U.S. President, George Washington,
the Anti-Federalists in 1791 became the nucleus of the Jeffersonian Republican , finally Democratic as strict
Constructionists of the new Constitution and in opposition to a strong national fiscal policy.
Antti -Federalists, so called because their opponents deftly seized the appellation of "Federalists",
though they were really "  nationalists" were strong in states such as Virginia, New York, and Massachusetts, 
where the economy was relatively successful and many people saw little need for such extreme remedies. 
Anti-Federalists also expressed fears that the new government would fall into the hands of merchants and men of money.
many Republicans detected oligarchy in the structure of the Senate, with it's six year terms.
The absence of a bill of rights aroused deep fears of central power.
The party split over negotiations with France during President John Adams's administration, though it remained a political force
until its members passed into both the Democratic and the Whig Parties in the 1820s.
Despite its dissolution, the party made a lasting impact 
The Republicans, based in the plantation South, opposed a strong executive power, were hostile to a standing army and navy,
demanded a strict reading of the Constitutional powers of the federal government,
and strongly opposed the Hamilton financial program.
The Republicans favored the Planters and the Farmers. 
 laying the foundations of a national economy, creating a national
judicial system and formulating principles of foreign policy.
The Federalists, had the advantage of communications , the press, organization, and generally, the better of the argument.
The Bill of Rights, steered through the first Congress by Madison's diplomacy,
these first 10 amendments ratified in 1791, adopted into the Constitution the basic English common-law rights that Americans 
had fought for. But they did more. Unlike Britain, the United States secured a guarantee of freedom for the press and 
the right of (peaceable) assembly.
Both parties originated in national politics. But soon expanded their efforts to gain supporters and voters in every state.

Republican Party:1798:
The Anti- Federalist Party was renamed as the Republican Party
reflecting the ideals of Republicanism supporting states rights and  a strict interpretation of the Constitution.

The Republicans, based in the plantation South, opposed a strong executive power, were hostile to a standing army and navy,
demanded a strict reading of the Constitutional powers of the federal government,
and strongly opposed the Hamilton financial program.
The Republicans favored the Planters and the Farmers. 
Democratic - Republican Party: 1798
( Jeffersonian Republicans)
The Federalist tried to discredit the Republicans to convey the extreme and radical actions taken in the name of democracy during the French Revolution. However, the Jeffersonian Republicans admired the strong
anti-monarchist sentiments of the French and their belief of the principle of government by the people -
so the name " Democratic- Republican " stuck.

Democratic - Republican Party 1800:
Thomas Jefferson, leader of the Democratic -  Republican Party, was elected the third president of the United States.
The Democratic -Republican Party adhered to the Constitution in order to limit the powers of the federal government
and was strongly opposed to aristocracy, monarchy, corruption and elitism.

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1808:
United States bans slave trade importing African slaves is outlawed, but smuggling continues.
Democratic-Republican Party1809:
James Madison followed Thomas Jefferson as leader of the Democratic- Republican Party.
1812:
The war of 1812, ended with a sense of victory and sealed the destruction of the Federalist Party.
 The secrecy of the Hartford Convention discredited the Federalists who were seen as too ex
Fall of the Federalist Party 1815:
The Federalist bitterly opposed the rising power of the Democratic- Republicans and held secret meetings at the Hartford
Convention to air their views reproaching Madison's administration and the war of 1812.
Some delegates favored secession.
The war of 1812, ended with a sense of victory and sealed the destruction of the Federalist Party.
The secrecy of the Hartford Convention discredited the Federalists who were seen as too extreme and disloyal
and even branded them as traitors
Democratic -Republican Party 1817:
As there was now only one political party ( Democratic- Republican) this led to a more stable government and heralded the "era of good feelings".
During the two term presidency of James Monroe.
Era Of Good Feelings:
Phrase coined by Benjamin Russell, in the Federalist newspaper, Colombian Centinel,on Jul.y 12, 1817.
following Monroe's visit to Boston Massachusetts,as part of his good-will tour of the United States.

Missouri Compromise1820:
Legislative compromise between pro- and anti slavery parties in the run-up to the American Civil War.
That provided for the admission of Maine to the United States as a free state along with Missouri as a slave state.
thus maintaining the balance of power between North and South in the United States Senate.
As part of the compromise, slavery was prohibited North of the 36,30 parallel, excluding Missouri.
Congress passed the legislation on March 3,1820,
1822:
Slave Revolt: South Carolina freed slave Denmark Vesey attempts a rebellion in Charleston.
thirty -five participants in the ill-fated uprising are hanged.


1824,National Republican Party: 
The Democratic- Republican Party split into several factions, taking the names of their leaders: The Adams men ( supporting John Quincy Adams), the Clay men ( supporting Henry Clay). The Adams and Clay factions began to act together and to call themselves National Republicans, because they wished to build up the nation's resources, specifically National Defense
following the was of 1812. Refer to the National Republican Party.
1825, Democratic- Republican Party:
John Quincy Adams became the last President under the Democratic - Republican ticket.
During this time it split into the northern- dominated Republicans and the southern- dominated Democrats.
1829,Democrat Party:
Andrew Jackson was elected president.
The Democratic - Republican party of Andrew Jackson dropped the word "Republican" and called themselves simply Democrats and so began the formation of the Democratic Party.
1831;
Slave Revolt:
Virginia slave preacher Nat turner leads a two-day uprising against Europeans, killing about 60. Militiamen, crush the revolt then spend two-months searching for Turner, who is eventually caught and hanged \. Southerners impose harsher restrictions on their slaves. 

1832:
1835:
censorship Southern states expel abolitionists and forbid the mailing of the antislavery propaganda.

1846 - 1848:
Mexican - American war, defeated Mexico yields an enormous amount of territory to the United States.
 Americans then wrestle with a controversial topic: Is slavery permitted in the new lands?

1847 Frederick Douglass :
Escaped slave Frederick Douglass, begins publishing the North Star in Rochester New York.

1849 Harriett Tubman:
 escapes after fleeing slavery. 
Tubman returns south at least 15 times to help rescue several hundred others.

1850:
Compromise of 1850, in exchange for California's entering the Union as a free state. 
Northern congressmen accept a harsher Fugitive Slave Act.

1852:
Harriett Beecher Stowe's novel  about the horrors of slavery, "Uncle Tom's Cabin" was published and sells 300,000 copies within a year of publication.
1854:
 Kansas- Nebraska Act setting aside the Missouri Compromise  of 1820,
Congress allows these two territories to choose whether to allow slavery. Violent clashes erupt.

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Dred Scott 1795-1858

1857, Dred Scott Decision:
Dred Scott, was an enslaved man in the United States who unsuccessfully sued for his freedom, and that of his wife
and their two daughters in the Dred Scott v. Sanford case of 1857 Popularly known as the Dred Scott case.
Dred Scott was a slave and social activist who served several masters before suing for his freedom.
His case made it to the Supreme Court ( Dred  Scott v. Sandford) prior to the American Civil War.
Dred Scott was born into slavery sometime in 1795, in Southampton County, Virginia.
He made history by launching a legal battle to gain his freedom.
After his first " owner " died, Scott spent time in two free states working for several subsequent owners.
Shortly after he  married he tried to buy freedom for himself and his family, but failed.
So he took his case to the Missouri court, where he won, only to have the decision over turned at the Supreme Court  level.
An event so controversial it was a harbinger for Abraham Lincoln's  Emancipation Proclamation and
inevitably of the Civil War.

On March 6, 1857, the Supreme Court decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford was issued.
11 long years after the initial suits. Seven of the nine judges agreed with the outcome delivered by
Chief Justice Roger Taney,who announced that
"slaves were not citizens of the United States and therefore had no rights to sue in Federal Courts:"...
They had no rights which the white man was bound to respect."
*The decision also declared that the Missouri Compromise , was unconstitutional. and that
Congress did not have the authority to prohibit slavery.
The Dred Scott decision sparked outrage in the Northern states and glee in the South,
The growing schism made Civil War inevitable.
Too controversial to retain the Scott's as slaves, after the trial, Mrs. Emerson remarried and returned Dred scott and his family to the Blows who granted them their freedom in May 1857.
That same month, Frederick Douglass delivered a speech discussing the Dred Scott decision on the anniversary of the
American Abolition Society.
Eventually, the 13th and 14th amendments to the constitution overrode this Supreme Court ruling.

Dred Scott and his family stayed in St. Louis after his emancipation, and he found work as a porter in a local hotel
But after only a little more than a year of true freedom, Scott died from tuberculosis on September 17, 1858
Dred Scott's wife Harriette, survived him by 18 years.

Placing pennies( displaying the face of Abraham Lincoln) on Scott's headstone has become a local tradition
over the decades. The pennies are believed to be a tribute to President Abraham Lincoln, who in 1863,issued the Emancipation Proclamation to free slaves. The commemorative marker next to the headstone reads
" In memory of a simple man who wanted to be free."
Abraham Lincoln:
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Abraham Lincoln,won the Republican nomination for president in 1860.On Jan.1, 1860:

1860:
Southern Secession, South Carolina secedes in December. more states follow the next year.
 
March 4,1861:Abraham Lincoln, inaugurated president.

March 11, 1861: The Confederate States Of America adopts a constitution. The confederacy consists of seven states of
the deep south. Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Texas.

1861-1865

United States Civil War: Four years of brutal conflict claim 623,000lives.

April 12, 1861: South Carolina troops fire on the federal arsenal at Fort Sumter.
The Civil War begins.
When the American Civil War (1861-65) began,President Abraham Lincoln carefully framed the conflict,as concerning the preservation of the Union rather than the abolition of slavery. He knew that neither Northerners nor the residents of the border states would support abolition as a war aim.
But by mid - 1862,as thousands of slaves fled to join the invading Northern armies, Lincoln was convinced that abolition had become a sound military strategy as well as the morally correct path.
The President's role as commander in chief empowered him to seize enemy property used to wage war against the United States. Slaves were the most conspicuous and valuable such property.They were later declared "contraband of war" by General Benjamin Butler,commander of Union forces. In May 1861, which provided a legal rationale for the seizure of slave property. By 1862, the trickle of escaped slaves had become a  flood. In March 1862, Congress enacted a new article of war,  forbidding army officers to return fugitive slaves to their masters. It became a war for freedom.
Most Republicans were convinced that the war against a slave holders rebellion, must become a war against slavery itself, and they put increasing pressure on Lincoln to proclaim an emancipation policy.
By 1862, it was clear that he risked alienating the Republican's. 

Confiscation Act August 6, 1861:
Was an act of Congress during the early months of the American Civil War permitting court proceedings for confiscation of any property being used to support the Confederate  independence effort, including slaves.
Lincoln was convinced to sign the legislation, which he did on August 6, 1861.
Due to the fact that the bill was based on military emancipation, no judicial proceedings were required
and, therefore Lincoln gave Attorney General Edward Bates, no instructions on enforcing the bill.
Within a year of it's passage, tens of thousands  of slaves had been freed by the First Confiscation Act.
With respect to slaves, the act authorized court proceedings to strip their owners of any claim to them but did not clarify whether the slaves were free.
As a result of this ambiguity, these slaves came under Union lines as property in the care of the U.S. government.
Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation:
President Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation in the midst of the Civil War,
announcing that if rebels did not end the fighting and rejoin the Union by Jan.1,1863, all slaves in the rebellious
states would be free.
This transformed the fight to preserve the nation.

In July 1862, President Lincoln read his "preliminary proclamation" to his cabinet, then decided to wait for a Union military victory to issue it.
On September 22, 1862 , following the victory at Antietam,he signed the preliminary Emancipation proclamation ,
formally alerting the Confederacy of his intention to free all persons held as slaves within the rebellious states.
One hundred days later,with the Confederacy still in full rebellion, President Abraham Lincoln issued the final Emancipation Proclamation.
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January1,1863: The Emancipation Proclamation takes effect
As soon as a slave escaped the control of the confederate government,  by running away. Or, through advances of federal troops. The former slave becomes free.
The proclamation ordered the freedom of all slaves in ten states.
The proclamation was issued in January, 1863. based on the presidents constitutional authority.
It was not passed by congress.
Some self emancipated themselves by joining the ranks of the Union soldiers, as the fighting neared the place they happened to be.
Stripped of their ancestral identity,: Most continued to identify themselves as they always had. They remained as the symbol of all things bad. "black" in meaning. The polar opposite of the symbol of all things good. Black.This is how they were defined. But,this is not who,or what they were. Jan.30 1989. in response to a demand to sever all ties with anything that associated them with the degradation of slavery. The term negro (black, in Spanish) no longer would define them as a people."This is deeper than just name recognition"said Mr.Jackson(Jesse) who along with others,called for the change at a news conference in late December. " Black tells you about skin color and what side of town you live on. African - American evokes discussion of the world. Leaders of the movement say they want to shift the definition of the group from the racial description, black. To a cultural and ethnic identity that ties the group to its continent of origin, and fosters dignity and self-esteem" ...The New York Times,Jan 31,1989
.After much discussion,this is still not who they were. They were now, black. But, in name only. Not in fact.

Some where gathered together and were formed into Confiscation Camps:
" I had crossed the line . I was free; but there was no one to welcome me, to the land of freedom.
I was a stranger in a strange land".
Harriett Tubman
" Freedom, are we there yet"
Lost ! After the first few steps across the property line they were prohibited from crossing, they found themselves
homeless, and alone in an unfamiliar , hostile world.Some would eventually return to the only life they had ever known,
plantation life the life of a slave. This was the beginning of a "new" way of life, that being sharecropping.
March 1867, the Radical Republicans effected their own plan of reconstruction, again placing Southern states under
military rule. They passed laws placing restrictions upon the President.
When Johnson allegedly violated one of these, The Tenure of Office Act.by dismissing Secretary of War
Edwin M. Stanton.
The House voted eleven articles of impeachment against him.
He was tried by the Senate in the spring of 1868 and acquitted by one vote.


Sharecropping was a system which allowed the land owner to maintain and finance the farm.While providing a way in which the ex slave could scratch out an existence for himself and his family.to remain in familiar surroundings.

Ex slaves, and poor Caucasians participated in share cropping.
:Thirteenth Amendment  Slavery Abolished:
Passed by the Senate on April 6, 1864
Passed by the House on January 31, 1865,
 Ratified by the required number of states December 6, 1865,
Adoption Proclaimed by Secretary of State , William H. Seward December 18, 1865
It was the first of the Reconstruction Amendments adopted following the American Civil War.
Since the American Revolution, states had divided into *states that allowed or states that prohibited slavery.
The 13th Amendment abolished slavery.

Slavery was implicitly permitted in the original Constitution through provisions such as Article 1, section2, clause3,
commonly known as the "Three Fifths Compromise,
which detailed how each slave state's enslaved population would be factored into its total population count
for the purposes of apportioning seats in the United States House of Representatives and direct taxes among the states.
The post-war status was uncertain . For the many slaves declared free by Abraham Lincoln's 1863, Emancipation Proclamation. On April 5, 1864, the Senate passed an amendment to abolish slavery.
Though the amendment formally abolished slavery throughout the United States, factors such as "Black Codes"
white supremacist violence, and selective enforcement of statutes continued to subject some freedmen to involuntary labor, particularly in the South.

Section 1.
Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude,except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have a dutly convicted , shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
Section 2.
Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Freedmen's Bureau Bill:March 3, 1865
The Freedmen's Bureau was a federal agency established on March 3, 1865 just before the end of the Civil War,
during the Reconstruction Era.

The Freedmen's Bureau was established to help and protect emancipated slaves (freedmen) during their
transition from slavery to a life of freedom.
The Freedmen's Bureau was originally created towards the end of the Civil War under President Lincoln's emergency war powers as part of the United States Department of war.
The official name of the title was the 'Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands'.
The Freedmen's Bureau was established due to the pressure and concern of members of the Abolitionist Movement for newly emancipated slaves.
The number of newly emancipated slaves (freedmen) totaled 4 million at the end of the Civil War.
The Freedmen's Bureau provided food, housing and medical aid to Freedmen.
It also established schools and offered legal assistance to those in need.
The Bureau was intended to last for the duration of the Civil War, and for one year afterwards,
however it continued until July 1, 1869.
The purpose of the Freedmen's Bureau was to;
* perform relief work for all poor people in the war stricken areas in the South
*The regulation of conditions of freedmen labor.
*The administration of justice in cases concerning the Freedmen.
*The management of abandoned and confiscated property including the redistribution of abandoned lands to former slaves.
* The support of education.

In reality, the Freedmen's bureau also organized the ex-slave votes in the South for the Republican Party. 
The Freedmen's Bureau was created to aid and protect emancipated slaves in their transition from a life of slavery to freedom. It also offered help to poor whites in the South.
Who opposed the Freedmen's Bureau:
The Freedmen's Bureau was opposed by organizations in the South such as the Ku Klux Klan.who intimidated the agents.
Resistance to the Bureau was also encouraged by President Andrew Johnson's administration who were influenced
 by the lenient policies of the President.
The result of this was eventually restored to the original owners.
The Freedmen's Bureau failed totally in establishing the freed slaves as landowners.
The Freedmen's Bureau operated as a political mechanism, organizing the ex-slaves for the Republican Party.
These political activities were strongly resented and made   the Freedmen's Bureau  hated in the South..

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April 9,1865, Robert E. Lee, surrenders to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House.
signaled the End of the Civil War. 
Lincoln's last speech:April 11,1865, was about reconstruction, a subject that had occupied a large part of his mind from the beginning.
Under the terms of his Proclamation of Amnesty and reconstruction, issued on December 8, 1863,
loyal Louisianans had organized a new state government.
They had also adopted a  new state Constitution that abolished slavery.
To persuade Radical Republicans that he took seriously their concerns that abolishing slavery was not enough
and that more needed to be done.
Lincoln publicly embraced limited suffrage of the ex-slaves.
" It is also unsatisfactory to some that the elective franchise ( privilege or right of voting in an election of public officers). is not given to the "colored" man.
I would myself prefer that it were now conferred on the very intelligent and on those who serve our cause as soldiers".
Lincoln had previously supported suffrage in a private lette to Louisiana's Governor Michael Hahn written in March 1864.
Now he publicly endorsed the step.
John Wilkes Booth, was among the crowd who listened to Lincoln's address.
Hearing the call for limited suffrage for the ex-slaves, Booth declared " that is the last speech he will ever make".
A conspiracy to assassinate Lincoln was already afoot.
But Lincoln's speech on April 11, and his call for suffrage, led to the tragic event of April 14, 
when Booth made good on his word.
April 14,1865:Assassination of President Abraham Lincoln:
President Andrew Johnson:
The looming showdown between Lincoln and the Congress over the competing reconstruction plans never occurred.
The President was assassinated on April 14,1865. His successor, Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, lacked his predecessor's skills in handling people; those skills would be badly missed. Johnson's plan envisioned the following;
* Pardons would be granted to those taking a loyalty oath.
* No pardons would be available to high Confederate officials and persons owning property valued in excess of $20,000
A state needed to abolish slavery before being readmitted.
*A state was required to repeal its secession ordinance before being readmitted.
Left as his successor, Andrew Johnson, as president to preside over the coplex process of incorporating former
Confederate states back into the Union after the Civil War. And establishing former slaves as free and equal citizens.
After Lincoln's death, Johnson announced his own plan. It differed only slightly from Lincoln's.
 He excluded high ranking Confederates and wealthy planters from the oath, but did pardon 13,,000
while contending that "white men alone must manage the South".
Johnson's interpretation of Lincoln's policies prevailed until the Congressional elections of 1866.These elections followed
outbreaks of violence against freedmen in the former rebel states.including the Memphis riots of 1866, and the New Orleans riot that same year.
The subsequent 1866 election gave Republicans a majority in congress, enabling them to pass the 14th , take control of
Reconstruction policy , Remove former Confederates from power, and enfranchise  the freedmen.
A Republican coalition  came to power in nearly all the southern states and set out to transform the society by
setting up a free labor economy, using the U.S. Army and the Freedman's Bureau.
Most of the seceeded states began compliance with the president's program. Congress was not in session, so there was
no immediate objection from that quarter. However, Congress reconvened in December and refused to seat the Southern representatives.
The Radical Republicans in Congress were angered by Johnson's actions. They refused to allow Southern
representatives and senators to take their seats in Congress.

Following the Congressional elections of 1866 elections, the Republican Party controlled more than two-thirds
of the seats in both houses of Congress.
As a result of the Republican election victory , the Congress now dictated how the reconstruction of the Union would proceed.
The first action the Republican majority took was to enact the first Reconstruction Act,in spite of Johnson's veto. This act split the South into five districts.
In each district soldiers of the United States would enforce martial law.
While Congress repudiated Johnson's plan for reconstruction.
 Johnson sought to destroy the Congress's plan as well. The Congress relied on Secretary of War Stanton
to carry out their policies.
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Black Codes:
The Black Codes were laws passed by Southern states in 1865 and 1866 in the United States after the American Civil War.
with the intent and the effect of restricting ex-slaves freedom , and of compelling them to work in labor economy
based on low wages and debt.
Black Codes were part of a larger pattern of Southern whites, who were trying to suppress the new freedom
of emancipated slaves, the freedmen.
Since the colonial period, colonies and states had passed laws that discriminated against " freed slaves".
In the South, these were generally included in "slave codes".
The goal was to reduce influence of freed men ( particularly after slave rebellions) because of their potential influence on slaves.
Restrictions included prohibiting them from voting
, bearing arms, gathering in groups for worship, and learning to read and write.
A major portion of these laws was to preserve slavery.
they were particularly concerned with controlling movement and labor , as slavery had given way to a free labor system.
Although Freedmen had been emancipated , their lives were greatly restricted by the black codes.
The defining feature of the black code was broad vagrancy law, which allowed local authorities to arrest freed people
for minor infractions and commit them to involuntary labor.
This period was the start of the convict lease system,also described as "slavery by another name"by Douglas Blackmon
* Vagrancy laws in the 1860's:
applied to those people who moved from place to place without regular homes or work.
It was a law that made these people work for three months at a stretch and on escaping they were chained and forced to
work.
April 9,1866, Civil Rights Act of 1866:passed April 9, 1866,
under the full title of "an Act to protect all Persons in the United States in their Civil Rights
and furnish the Means of their Vindication".
detailed the rights of all U.S. citizens, including the right to buy and sell property , engage in business, and make contracts,sue , and give evidence in court. The Civil Rights Act of 1866
Was the first United States federal law to define citizenship and affirm that all citizens are equally protected by the  law.
intended to protect the civil rights of the descendants of slaves.
legislation passed by congress in 1865,and vetoed by President Andrew Johnson.
In April 1866, Congress again passed the bill to support the Thirteenth Amendment..
Johnson again vetoed the bill.
but a two-thirds majority overrode the veto to allow it to become law without presidential signature.
The purpose of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, was to protect ex- slaves from legislation in the Southern States such as the Black Codes and the Vagrancy Laws.
The Civil Rights Act of 1866, also gave further rights to the freed slaves.
Ku Klux Klan:
Ku Klux Klan: 
Was organized in early spring 1866. The name "ku klux"was a derivative of the Greek word Kuklos, meaning "band" or "circle". for the remainder of 1866 there is little evidence that the klan was involved in vigilantism as new "dens" were formed for social purposes in many of the surrounding counties.
In February 1867 Tennessee enfranchised freedmen, and Republicans established local chapters of the Union League,
a political arm of the party, to mobilize the new voters. In some respects the kkk became the conservative ex-confederates
answer to the Union League, a rallying point for white democrats determined to drive freedmen, Republicans, and their  allies from the polls.

During the spring of 1867 the kkk's innocent beginnings began to give way to intimidation and violence as some of its
members sought to keep freedmen in their traditional place.
The reorganization of the klan into a political and terrorist movement began in April 1867,
when the states Democratic Party leadership met in Nashville . An invitation, for a gathering of members at the "Maxwell House hotel", where Tennessee's conservative Democrats, provided for greater control of an expanding kkk.
A prescript established administrative protocols and established the need for secrecy.
Former Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest was elected the first and only Grand Wizard.
In 1868 a revised prescript declared the klan the defender of the Constitution of the United States and the
protector of the orphans and widows of Confederate dead.
Once the dens took up political terrorism and racial violence as its primary purpose,they fed on local reaction to threats to conservative political control and white supremacy rather than to any coordinated direction on the state or county level.
After the election 1868 Klansmen attacked ,whipped, and murdered men, and women whenever they found their
activities offensive, Freed people who exhibited too much independence, established schools, or assumed positions
of leadership were singled out for harsh treatment.
After the North defeated the South in the Civil war, politicians were faced with the  task of putting together the
divided country back together.
There was great debate about how severely the former Confederate states should be punished for leaving the Union.
The Reconstruction Acts of 1867 laid out the process for readmitting Southern states into the Union.

Radical Republicans:
* Radical Republicans: a member of the Republican party:
The Republican Party at its formation during the 1850s was a coalition of Northern altruists, industrialists, former "Whigs",
practical politicians, etc. While not publicly committed to abolition of slavery prior to the Civil War,the party nonetheless, attracted the most zealous antislavery advocates.They called themselves "Radicals" wit h a sense of a complete permanent
eradication of slavery and secession-ism, without compromise. They were opposed during the war by the moderate Republicans (led by President Abraham Lincoln),by the Conservative Republicans,
and by the pro-slaver and anti-Reconstruction Democratic Party as well as by conservatives in the South and Liberals in the
North during Reconstruction.
Radicals led efforts after the war to establish civil rights for former slaves and fully implement emancipation.
After weaker measures resulted  in 1866, in violence against former slaves in the rebel states,

Radicals pushed the Fourteenth Amendment and statutory protections through Congress.
They disfavored allowing ex-confederate officers to retake political power in the South and emphasized equality, civil rights and voting rights for the "freed people", i.e. people who had been enslaved by state slavery laws within the United States
During the war, Radical republicans opposed Abraham Lincoln's initial selection of General George B. McClellan, and his efforts to bring seceded Southern states back into the Union as quickly and easily as possible.
The Radicals pushed their own reconstruction plan, through the congress in 1864.
But Lincoln vetoed it and was putting his own presidential policies in effect by virtue as military commander in chief
Lincoln's last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting black suffrage, the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Vice Pres. Andrew Johnson, was opposed to this.
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Following the Congressional elections of 1866 elections, the Republican Party controlled more than two-thirds
of the seats in both houses of Congress.
As a result of the Republican election victory , the Congress now dictated how the reconstruction of the Union would proceed.

Radicals pushed for the uncompensated abolition of slavery. After the war, the Radical Republicans demanded civil rights U.S. slaves including measures ensuring suffrage. They initiated the various Reconstruction Acts, and limited political
and voting rights for Confederate civil officials and military officers.
They fought U.S. President Andrew Johnson, who repeatedly vetoed these bills,favored allowing the individual Southern states, to decide the rights and status of former slaves as freedmen, without interference from the Federal government.
To take the issue out of Johnson's reach, Congress chose to address civil rights with a constitutional amendment,and
June 13, 1866, Congress approved a joint resolution proposing a five part amendment to the constitution.
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Reconstruction Act Of 1867:
Congressional Republicans again joined forces to pass the Reconstruction act.
This act voided the state governments formed in the South under the presidential plans and instead divided
the south into 5 military districts
The states were required to grant the freedmen the right to vote  and to ratify the 14th Amendment.
Congress required that each state draft a new constitution, with would have to be approved by Congress.

President Johnson's vetoes of these measures were overridden by Congress.

Presidential Reconstruction: lasted from 1865 to 1867.
Andrew Johnson , as Lincoln's successor , proposed a very lenient policy toward the South.
He pardoned most Southern whites, appointed provisional governors and outlined steps for the creation of new state governments.
Johnson felt that each state government could best decide how they wanted blacks to be treated.
Many in the North were infuriated that the South would be returning their former Confederate leaders to power.
They were also alarmed by Southern adoption of Black Codes, that sought to maintain white supremacy.
Recently freed blacks found the post war South very similar to the prewar South.

Fourteenth Amendment:
The Fourteenth Amendment: Adopted on July 9, 1868,
guaranteed equalrights for all and citizenship for ex-slaves and all.
The Amendment originated after the civil war, when congress ( esp. the Radical Republican) faction attempted to
pass legislation securing civil rights for the recently emancipated slaves.

Fourteenth Amendment:
The opening sentence of Section 1 of the 14th,Amendment defines U.S. citizenship: " All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside."
This repudiates the Supreme Court's 1857, Dred Scott decision,in which Chief Justice Roger Taney wrote, that a negro, even if born free, could not claim rights of citizenship under the federal constitution.

Section 1's, second clause: " No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States. "This greatly expanded the civil and legal rights of all American citizens by protecting them from infringement by the states as well as by the federal government.

The third clause: " nor any state deprive any person of life, liberty or property, without due process of law," expanded the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment to the states as well as the federal government.

In it's later sections, the 14th Amendment authorized the federal government to punish states that violated
the citizens right to vote.


The Fourteenth Amendment was adopted on July 9, 1868
The amendment originated after the Civil War. when Congress (esp. the Radical Republican) faction
attempted to pass legislation securing civil rights for the recently emancipated slaves.
Thaddeus Stevens:
Representative Thaddeus Stevens, introduced a plan in late April,that combined several different legislative proposals
( civil rights for the freedmen, how to apportion representatives in congress, punitive measures against the former
Confederate States of America, and repudiation of of Confederate war debt),into a single constitutional amendment by June 1866, 

FIFTEENTH AMENDMENT:
Prevented ethnicity from being used to disenfranchise men.

Fifteenth Amendment: granted men (former slaves) the right to vote,by declaring that the "right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States  or by any state on account of ethnicity, color or previous condition of servitude."
Although ratified on February 3,1870, the promise of the 15th Amendment would not be fully realized for almost a century.
Through the use of poll taxes, literacy tests and other means,  Southern states were able to effectively disenfranchise
the descendants of slaves.
It would take the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 before the majority of these Americans in the South were registered to vote.
Ratification of these amendments became a requirement for Southern states to be admitted into the union.
Although these measures were positive steps toward racial equality, their enforcement proved extremely difficult.
Ulysses S. Grant: May 24,1868,
Ulysses S. Grant accepts the nomination by the Republican Party for President of the United States.
November 3, 1868, Grant is elected President of the United States.
March 4, 1869: Grant is inaugurated 18th president.
February 3, 1869,
President Grant signs the 15th Amendment to the Constitution. Giving all men the right to vote.

May22, 1872:
Grant signs the amnesty bill for former Confederates.
November 5,1872,
Grant is re-elected president.
Beginning in 1873,
a series of Supreme Court decisions limited the scope of Reconstruction-era laws
and federal support for the Reconstruction Amendments, particularly the 14th and 15th,
which gave the ex--slaves the status of citizenship and the protection of the Constitution,
 including the all important right to vote.

March 1, 1875:
Civil Rights Act passed
May 29,1875:
Grant announces he will not run for a 3rd term as president.
June 22,1870,
At Grants request, Congress establishes the Department of Justice in order to ensure justice for the newly freed slaves and their supporters.
July 22,1870,
Grant orders troops to North Carolina to suppress Ku Kux Klan violence.
April 20, 1871:
Congress passes the second Enforcement Act, Known as the Ku Klux Klan ct to suppress white leagues from
denying Freedmen their rights.
February 28, 1877,
Rutherford B. Hayes is declared president.
March 4, 1877:
Rutherford B. Hayes, becomes the 19th President of the United States.
Rutherford B. Hayes:
As results trickled in, on November 7, 1876, Democrats crowned Samuel, Tilden as the victor. with a winning popular
vote margin of 250,000. But  four states - Florida,Louisiana, South Carolina,and Oregon quickly became areas of contention.
Rutherford B. Hayes, needed 185 electoral votes.
He had 165, to Tilden's 184. Twenty electoral votes were in doubt.
To break the logjam, Congress appointed a special Electoral Commission to investigate the results.
Five Republican Congressmen, joined Five Democrats and Five Supreme Court Justices. To come to a majority vote
of 8-7 in favor of Hayes.  Hayes, was President Elect by one commission vote.The narrowest margin of victory.
That decision did little to soothe the incensed Democrats.Extensive filibustering took place that delayed acknowledgement
of the Commission's decision. Rumors  began to swirl that Tilden's more ardent supporters might show up to Washington
armed; With an eye on kidnapping Hayes.
On the trip to Washington, Hayes and his wife got the official announcement.
March 2, The Democrats finally ceded their point, albeit with concessions:
They would gain a Democrat postmaster general.
as well as the removal of federal troops from government buildings,
effectively ending Reconstruction.
Presidential Election of 1876:
The United States presidential election of 1876 was one of the most disputed presidential elections in American
history. Samuel J. Tilden of New York out polled Ohio's Rutherford B. Hayes in the popular vote, and had 184 electoral votes to Hayes' 165, with 20 votes uncounted.
These 20 electoral votes were in dispute: in three states (Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina).
each party reported its candidate had one the state, while in Oregon one elector was declared illegal ( as an elected
or appointed official") and replaced.
The 20 disputed electoral votes were ultimately awarded to Hayes after a bitter legal and political battle giving him the victory.
These three states were the last three former Confederate states governed by the Republicans.
Congress set up a special commission to decide the election, and a compromise was reached.
According to the compromise of 1877, the three Southern states would give their 20 disputed electoral votes                           for president to  Republican Rutherford B. Hayes,
But Democrats would be allowed to take control of the governments of those states.
February 28, 1877,
Rutherford B. Hayes is declared president.
March 4, 1877:
Rutherford B. Hayes, becomes the 19th President of the United States.
The Compromise of 1877:
By the 1870s, support for the racially egalitarian policies of Reconstruction, as may whites had resorted to intimidation and violence to keep ex-slaves from voting and restore white supremacy in the region.
Many historians believe that an informal deal was struck to resolve the dispute: The Compromise of 1877.
In return for the Democrats acquiescence in Hayes' election., the Republicans agreed to withdraw federal troops from the south, ending Reconstruction.
The Compromise effectively ceded power in the Southern states to the Democratic Redeemers.
As the 1876 election approached, the Democrats chose as their candidate Governor Samuel B. Tilden of New York,
while the Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, governor of Ohio.
On election day that November, the Democrats appeared to come out on top, winning the swing states of Connecticut
Indiana, New York, and New Jersey.
By midnight Tilden had 184 of the 185 electoral votes he needed to win,
and was leading the popular vote by 250,000.
November 7, 1876,Election Day.
Samuel J. Tilden wins the popular vote over Rutherford B. Hayes,
but does not have enough electoral college votes to win election.
The Republicans refused to accept defeat, however, and accused Democratic supporters of intimidating and
bribing ex-slave voters to prevent from voting in three Southern States- Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina.
As of 1876, these were the only remaining states i the South with Republican governments.
With both sides accusing each other of electoral fraud, South Carolina,  along with Florida and Louisiana
submitted two sets of election returns with different results.
Meanwhile, in Oregon, the states Democratic governor replaced a Republican elector with a Democrat 
( alleging that the Republican had been ineligible),
thus, throwing Haye's victory in that state into question as welll.
To resolve the dispute, Congress set up an electoral Commission in January 1877, consisting of five representatives,
five Senators and five Supreme Court Justices.
The commission's members included seven Democrats, seven Republicans and one independent justice David Davis.
When Davis refused to serve, the moderate Republican Justice Joseph Bradley was chosen to replace him.

During the commission's deliberations, Hayes' Republican allies met in secret with moderate southern Democrats in hopes of convincing them not to block the  official counting of the votes through filibuster and effectively allow Haye's election.
In February, at a meeting held in Washington's Wormley Hotel, the Democrats agreed to accept a Hayes victory
and to respect the civil and political rights of Freedmen,
On the condition that Republicans withdraw all federal troops from South, thus consolidating Democratic control
in the region.

Hayes would also have to agree to name a leading southerner to his cabinet and to support federal aid
for the Texas and Pacific Railroad, a planned transcontinental line via a southern route.
On March 2, the congressional commission voted 8-7 along party lines to award                                                                    all the disputed electoral votes to Hayes.
Hayes was inaugurated on March 5, 1877.

Democratic Redeemers:
were the Southern wing of the conservative, pro-business faction in the Democratic Party. They sought to
regain their political power and enforce white supremacy.
Their policy of redemption was intended to to oust the Radical Republicans, a coalition of  Freedmen, "carpetbaggers , and "scalawags".
They generally were led by the rich planters, businessmen, and professionals, and they dominated Southern Politics I
most areas.

During Reconstruction, the south was under occupation by federal forces, and Southern state governments were dominated
by Republicans, elected by freedmen and allies.
Republicans nationally pressed for the granting of political rights to the newly- freed slaves as he key to their becoming full citizens.
The Thirteenth Amendment (banning slavery)
The Fourteenth Amendment( guaranteeing the civil rights of former slaves and ensuring equal protection under the laws)
and The Fifteenth Amendment ( prohibiting the denial of the right to vote on grounds of race, color, or previous condition
of servitude),enshrined such political rights in the Constitution.
Numerous educated and  freed people moved to the south to work for reconstruction.
Some were elected to office in the southern states,or were appointed to certain positions.
The Reconstruction governments were unpopular with many European southerners,
who were not willing to accept defeat and continued to try to prevent brown poltical activity by any means.
While the elite Planter class often supported insurgencies,violence against freedmen and other Republicans
was usually carried out by other europeans:
The secret Ku Klux Klan chapters developed in the first years after the war was one form of insurgency

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Politicians:Blanche , Revels
Abolitionist, Fredrick Douglass

Electoral College:
The United States Electoral College is a body of electors established by the United States Constitution, constituted
every four years for the sole purpose of electing the president and the vice president of the United States.
While the electoral vote has given the same result as  the popular vote in most elections,
this has not been the case in a few elections, including the 2000 and 2016 elections.

The Electoral College system is a matter of ongoing debate, with some defending it and others calling for its abolition.
Supporters of the Electoral College argue that it is fundamental to American federalism, that it requires candidates to appeal to voters outside large cities, increases the political influence of small states, discourages the excessive growth of political parties and preserves the two - party system,and  makes the electoral outcome appear more legitimate than that of a nationwide popular vote.
Opponents, of the Electoral College argue that it can result in a person becoming president even though an
opponent got more votes( which occurred in two of the five presidential elections from 2000 to 2016);
that it causes candidates to focus their campaigning disproportionately in a few "swing states" while
ignoring most areas of the country;
and that its allocation of Electoral College votes gives citizens in less populated rural states as much as
four times the voting power as those in more populous urban states.
Polls since 1967 have shown that a majority of Americans favor the president and vice president being elected
by the nationwide popular vote,    instead of by the Electoral College.

In the 1870s, Paramilitary organizations, such as the white league in Louisiana and Red Shirts in Mississippi and North Carolina, under mined Republicans, disrupting meetings and political gatherings.
These paramilitary bands also used violence and threats of violence to undermine the Republican vote.
Freedmans Bureau
Freedmen/ former slaves, entered entered politics. Voting rights were extended, and protected by Northern troops.

Dixiecrats:

The States Rights Democratic Party( usually called the Dixiecrats)was a short lived segregationist political party in the United States,

active primarily in the south. It arose due to the spit in opposition to the Democratic Party.

After Harry S. Truman, a member of the Democratic Party, ordered integration of the military in 1948 and other actions to address

civil rights of disenfranchised Americans, many Southern conservative white politicians who objected to this course organized themselves as a breakaway faction.

The Dixiecrats were determined to maintain racial segregation.



States Rights Democratic Party (Dixiecrats)

Founded: 1948

Dissolved: 1948

Split from:  Democratic Party

Merged into: White supremacism: White Nationalism; Racial segregation; Southern Nationalism; States Rights

Political Position;  Far- right

Party Flag

Politics of United States:

Political Parties:

Elections

Supporters assumed control of the state Democratic parties in part or in full in several Southern states.

The party opposed racial integration and wanted to retain Jim Crow Laws and white supremacy in the face of possible federal intervention.

Its members were referred to as  " Dixiecrats", a portmanteau of "Dixie", referring to the Southern United States, and " Democrat".


Despite the Dixiecrat's success in several states, Truman was narrowly re-elected. After the 1948 narrowly re-elected.

After the 1948 election n, its leaders generally returned to the Democratic Party.

The Dixiecrats presidential candidate, Strom Thurmond became  a Republican in 1964.

 The Dixiecrats represented the weakening of the  Solid South". This referred to the Southern Democratic Part's control of presidential elections in the south and most seats in congress, partly through decades of disenfranchisement of freed Americans since the turn of the century. Ex- slaves had formally been aligned with the Republican Party

before being excluded from politics in the region, but during the great migration

ex-slaves had found the Democratic Party in the North and West more suited to their interests.)



The term "Dixie-crat" has sometimes been used by Northern Democrats to refer to conservative Southern Democrats from the 1940s

to the 1990s, regardless of any views expressed about white supremacy or segregation.

By the 1870s, conservatives white voters of the southern United states were heavily voting Democratic in National

and presidential elections, and apart from minor pockets of Republican electoral strength in Appalachia plus Gillespie and Kendall Counties of central Texas, forming what was known as the " Solid South".

Even during Reconstruction , Democrats used paramilitary insurgents and other activist to disrupt and intimidate

Republican Freedman voters, including fraud at the polls and attacks on their leaders.

 The electoral violence culminated in the Democrats regaining control of the state legislatures and passing new constitutions

and laws from 1890 to 1908 to disenfranchise most blacks and many poor whites.

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 Shades of Humankind."We are the world".
Beautiful  Shades of Brown

Define who you are. Not who/what you wish to be. You can be whatever you wish, in name only. Not in fact.
The Law of Non-Contradiction: 'Nothing can both be and not be.'  In other words: "two or more contradictory statements cannot both be true, in  the same sense, at the same time" :


Words have definitions. If the word has an infinite number of meanings, reasoning would be impossible.
For not to have one meaning, is to have no meaning. And if words have no meaning our reasoning with
one another has been annihilated.
Human's: this is who we are, no more...no less.
Kente Cloth
Kente, known as nwentom in Akan, is a type  of silk and cotton fabric made of interwoven cloth strips and is native to the Akan ethnic group. of South Ghana. Kente is made in Akan lands such as Ashanti Kingdom. Kente comes from the word "kenten", which means basket in Akan dialect.Asante.Akans refer to kente as nwentoma,meaning woven cloth.
              Brown Spectra of Color
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Food For Thought

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We Are All the Same.

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I'm Brown and I'm Proud.

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